The Great War (1914-1918) in real time

Day 298 of the Great War, May 21st 1915

YouTube (The Battle of San River - Winston Churchill Gets Fired)



Western Front: British have attacked German lines near Festubert but without any gain

Over the past two days the British have attacked German lines near Festubert, but with the latter having received reinforcements, the British are unable to make gains comparable to those of a week earlier.

Italy Entente powers sign a military convention with Italy

Today the Entente powers sign a military convention with Italy, which details how the allied armies will cooperate once the latter enters the war. The key aim of Italy has been to secure a guarantee of a Serbian offensive to draw off Austro-Hungarian forces from the Italian frontier. In exchange, the Russian government had wanted Italy to transfer supplies to the Serbian army when they (hopefully) linked up. This the Italians declined to do, and since the Entente want active Italian participation in the war the 'compromise' is that Russia will send supplies to Italy, which the Italians will then hand over to the Serbs if they two armies make contact. It is another good deal for the Italians, and another setback for the Russians - not only have they been able to secure third-party assistance for their Serbian allies, but, given the continuing disaster in Galicia, the Russians are hardly in a position to be helping anyone out anyway.

South West Africa campaign: German governor, sends a proposal to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha for an armistice

As the remaining German forces in German South-West Africa fall back towards Kalkfeld along the rail line leading to the north-eastern interior, Theodor Seitz, the German governor, sends a proposal to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha for an armistice. The terms proposed by Seitz are for a territorial division of the colony based on the status quo, with the fate of the colony to be decided after the war. Though the South Africans have fulfilled the objectives that Britain had emphasized - the occupation of the coast and the destruction of the main wireless tower at Windhoek - Botha has no intention of calling off the South African campaign in the colony until it has been fully occupied. Botha's objectives in German South-West Africa are imperial, but as defined by South Africa: they wish to control all of German South-West Africa so they can claim it as a colony of their own after the war.

Naval operations: Celtic Sea

Bernd Wegener, commanding U-27, sinks British freighter SS GLENHOLM, 1,968 tons, at the end of a long voyage from Iquique, Chile to Falmouth, carrying a cargo of nitrate. This will be his last sinking on this patrol. His score now stands at 6 ships and 22,191 tons.

Day 300 of the Great War, May 23rd 1915

Italy: Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary

Though Prime Minister Salandra has long desired Italian entry into the war on the side of the Entente, he has kept knowledge of the timing of a declaration of war a closely guarded secret; notably, the armed forces have not been informed when war is to commence. Indeed, for several weeks the heads of the army and navy have been pleading with Salandra for information on when war is expected to begin, but to no avail. Only at noon today does the naval general staff learn that hostilities will commence at midnight, and only through an informal telephone call from an official at the foreign ministry. Meanwhile, at 430pm Salandra officially notifies the minister of war that the declaration of war is about to be handed to the Austro-Hungarian government. Salandra's reasoning has been to avoid any preparatory measure that might allow Austria-Hungary to argue that Italy had committed an act of aggression prior to a declaration of war. In practice, however, it leads to the astonishing situation where the Italian government has known for four weeks that Italy is going to enter the war, but the armed forces are actually unprepared to commence hostilities when the day comes.

Meanwhile, this morning Foreign Minister Sonnino learns that the Italian ambassador in Vienna never received yesterday's telegram containing the declaration of war, and confesses to his fellow ministers that it all likelihood it was intercepted and deciphered by the Austro-Hungarians. A second telegram is thus dispatched at 2pm, and two hours later the ambassador formally presents it to the Austro-Hungarian government, informing it that hostilities will commence as of midnight.

Crucially, the Italian government very deliberately decides not to declare war on Germany today, in part at least to avoid Germany sending significant forces to fight on the Italian frontier. Nor does Italy declare war on the Ottoman Empire; indeed, diplomatic relations remain intact and the Ottoman embassy in Rome remains open, providing a perfect base for espionage against Italy. This means that Italy does not actually fulfill the requirement of the Treaty of London to go to war against all enemies of the Entente, a very great irony considering how much bluster will issue forth from Italian representatives later in the war and afterwards regarding faithful adherence to the agreement.

Notably, Germany does not declare war on Italy either. It prefers to leave open the possibility of Italian goods entering Germany through neutral Switzerland, as occurred during the period of Italian neutrality, and thus leave open a path around the British naval blockade. The Germans also feared that a declaration of war against Italy might trigger Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente. Unsurprisingly this decision is unpopular in Vienna, but it is equally unsurprising that Austro-Hungarian displeasure is of no great concern to the Germans.

Ottoman Empire: Enver Pasha request the arrival of German submarines

Enver Pasha dispatches a message to the German government today, requesting the arrival of German submarines in the eastern Mediterranean to attack the Entente fleet off the Dardanelles. The appeal is unnecessary - German submarines are about to make their presence felt it dramatic fashion.

Naval operations: Turkey

The train carrying Helmuth von Mücke and his men arrives at the station at Haydarpasa Gari, across the bay from Constantinople (Istanbul). There they perform parade maneuvers to show that they have not lost their military bearing. Von Mücke then presents his men and their flag to German Admiral Souchon, the man who had himself delivered the battlecruiser GOEBEN to the Turks the previous August, and has been the commander of the Turkish Navy ever since.

"I report the landing squad from the Emden: Five officers, seven petty officers, and thirty men strong."

Naval operations: HMS E11 attacks

In March the British failed in their attempts to send a fleet through the Dardanelles Straits, thanks to minefields and Turkish shore batteries. They have had more luck with a submarine attempt to attack through the Straits. Lieutenant-Commander Martin Nasmith successfully brought the E11 submarine through the Dardanelles on the 17th of May, sailing under the mines and out of sight of the Turks.

Now the E11 is in the Sea of Marmara, the wider body of water that lies between the Dardanelles and Constantinople, the Bosporus and the entrance to the Black Sea. Nasmith’s mission is to disrupt Turkish attempts to reinforce their forces in Gallipoli by sea.

Until now the Turks have not had to worry about their shipping in the Sea of Marmara being attacked, but Naismith changes that. Today he sinks a Turkish gunboat and several other vessels. This all seems a bit too easy: the Turks have nothing to defend themselves against this British submarine.

Day 302 of the Great War, May 25th 1915

Gallipoli Campaign

Australian and Indian troop reinforce Anzac Beach at Gallipoli.



United Kingdom: First Coalition is formed

The formation of the new coalition government in Britain is completed, and the new cabinet formally takes office today. Prime Minister Asquith retains office as Prime Minister, as there was never any serious discussion of replacing him at present, as no Liberal at this moment has the stature to supplant him. Furtjer, Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law understands that the alternative to a Liberal-led coalition is not a Conservative-led coalition but a Conservative minority government which would be opposed by a partisan Liberal party that would block Conservative efforts to fight the war as they saw fight (i.e. such as on conscription). Even though the Liberals and Conservatives have roughly the same number of MPs in the House of Commons, the Liberals also retain a majority of places in the cabinet and many of the key offices; Lloyd George in particular has worked in negotiations to limit Conservative ministers, and has succeeded in convincing Bonar Law to accept the relatively junior office of Colonial Secretary. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that this is no longer a purely Liberal government, as Liberal ministers now find themselves sitting at the same time as such objects of long-time partisan hatred as Edward Carson. In addition, the Labour party has joined the coalition, and for the first time in its history a Labour MP - its leader, Arthur Henderson - has a seat at the cabinet table (as President of the Board of Education). Of the major parties only the Irish Nationalists are absent; though offered a place, and though the party leadership was tempted, they declined as it would mean serving alongside the hated Ulster Unionists.

Two particular changes warrant mention. First, the press campaign against Lord Kitchener launched by The Times on May 14th has backfired spectacularly, as the public, oblivious to the administrative bumbling of the War Office, still see the Secretary of War as the great imperial hero. As a result, removing Kitchener from office is not politically viable. Instead, though he is left in office, Kitchener's powers are reduced by transferring responsibility for munitions production to a separate Ministery of Munitions. Lloyd George becomes Minister of Munitions, and though giving up the Chancellorship of the Exchequer to do so would normally be seen as a demotion, he well understands that in wartime public focus is on the performance of the war ministries, and that if he can fix the 'shells crisis' he will become the man of the hour.

Second, today confirms Churchill's demotion from the Admiralty. His replacement is Arthur Balfour, a senior Conservative (and ex-Prime Minister) whose steady and urbane personality is the absolute opposite of Churchill's, which is precisely the point. No one would ever fear Balfour racing off to take up the defence of a threatened city, as Churchill did at Antwerp. This morning Churchill cleans out his desk at the Admiralty building. He is in the grib of severe depression, feeling that his political career is at an end. At this moment he is visited by Kitchener, who commiserates with Churchill, and as it gets up to leave he remarks to his former colleague: 'Well, there is one thing at any rate they cannot take from you. The Fleet was ready.' Kitchener, in his typical imperious manner, is exactly right: whatever other failings Churchill may have demonstrated while First Lord of Admiralty from 1911 to today, it is indisputable that the Royal Navy was prepared for war when it came last August. Moreover, of course, Churchill's hour is yet to come.

Western Front: General d'Urbal has decided to launch an attack by XXI, XXXIII, and IX Corps simultaneously against several points

As the French 10th Army inches forward in Artois, General d'Urbal has decided to launch an attack by XXI, XXXIII, and IX Corps simultaneously against several points. After twenty-four hours' artillery bombardment, the infantry advance at midday, but fail to gain any significant ground.

Eastern Front: Russian bridgehead west of the San held by XXI Corps at Zagrody is eliminated

North of Przemysl the German advance continues today. A Russian bridgehead west of the San held by XXI Corps at Zagrody is eliminated this afternoon, while to the north the German Guard Corps occupies Laszki. The speed of the German advance is slower today; though Russian resistance continues, the crucial factor is that the farther east 11th Army goes, the more exposed its northern flank potentially becomes. As a result, Guard Corps in particular finds itself shedding battalions as it advances to cover the line of the Lubaczowka River.

Japan/China relationship

The diplomatic agreement between Japan and China, reflecting the latter's acceptance of the Twenty-One Demands. As a result of the treaty, Japan's hold on southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia is enhanced, Japan receives Germany's economic rights in Shantung while the leasehold is to be settled after the war, the Japanese-controlled Hanyehping Company is established, and China pledges to lease no other power territory at Fukien, opposite Japanese-owned Taiwan.

Naval operations: Atlantic Ocean, southwest of Ireland

Claus Hansen, commanding U-41, torpedoes the American freighter SS NEBRASKAN, 4,409 tons, travelling in ballast from Liverpool to the Delaware Breakwater. The damaged ship survives the attack.

Naval operations: Agean Sea

Twelve days after the British pre-dreadnought GOLIATH was torpedoed by the Ottoman destroyer MUAVENET, an even greater menance makes itself felt off the Dardanelles. After weeks at sea and refuelling at Cattaro, the German submarine U21 enters action, torpedoing the British pre-dreadnought TRIUMPH as it lay off Anzac Beach. As it began to sink, a destroyer comes alongside and hundreds of sailors step from the stern of TRIUMPH onto the deck of the smaller ship. After twenty minutes the pre-dreadnought sinks, and fifty-three men drown. The loss of the warship is bad enough, but the psychological impact is worse, as the sinking occurs in broad daylight in full view of both sides. The Ottoman soldiers in their trenches cheer madly, their cries echoing down the hills into the Entente trenches, where British, French, and ANZAC infantry can only look on in shock. Admiral de Robeck responds by immediately orders all of his large warships back to Mudros, which could hardly have had a positive impact on morale for the army still trapped in the Gallipoli beachheads.

Photo: Survivors of the sinking of HMS TRIUMPH?



Naval operations: Italian Somaliland

At 0300 hours the monitors' convoy runs into a heavy fog bank. By noon the fog has lifted, and Captain Fullerton discovers that the tugs T.A. JOLLIFE and REVENGER have disappeared. T.A. JOLLIFE had been steaming independently, and had orders to proceed to Mombassa if separated from the convoy. REVENGER, on the other hand, was helping tow HMS SEVERN. At 0600 hours REVENGER had gotten sideways to SEVERN, slipped her tow line and started looking for TRENT. Everyone is on the lookout for the missing tug, and at sunset TRENT starts using her searchlights. At 2000 hours two green lights are sighted in the far distance. At 0915 three red lights, taken as a distress signal, are seen in the same quarter. TRENT, still towing MERSEY, slowly alters course to investigate. At 2200 TRENT comes upon REVENGER, which has two men injured while slipping the tow line in the fog earlier. The two injured men are taken aboard TRENT. The convoy then returns to its original course.

Naval operations: German East Africa

HMS HYACINTH has returned to Zanzibar.

Naval operations: HMS E11 attacks

HMS E11 has slipped through the Dardanelles and has preyed on Turkish shipping in the Sea of Marmara. Now, though it has sailed on to attack shipping in the port of Constantinople itself. Commander Nasmith, the E11‘s commander, hopes to catch the GOEBEN, the German battlecruiser that is now the flagship of the Turkish fleet. If the GOEBEN is sunk then the naval balance in the Black Sea will be completely changed to Russia’s advantage.

Drawing: E11 torpedoes the "STAMBOUL" off Constantinople



Unfortunately for Nasmith, the GOEBEN is not in port. So he satisfies himself by torpedoing the STAMBOUL, a Turkish transport vessel. The STAMBOUL has to run aground to avoid sinking.

The E11‘s attack on Constantinople is the first naval attack on the Ottoman capital in over a hundred years. Panic erupts in the city.

Day 304 of the Great War, May 27th 1915

Western Front: French 70th Division seizes the cemetery at the village of Ablain

In fierce hand-to-hand fighting, the French 70th Division seizes the cemetery at the village of Ablain, west of Souchez in Artois, and the connecting German trenches.

Arial operations: French bomber raid on Ludwigshafen

Early in 1915 the French had decided to embark on a campaign of strategic bombing that aimed to impair German industrial production. The first bomber group, GB1, was equipped with the reliable Voisin III aircraft, which was specially-equipped with bomb racks that carried 155mm artillery shells. After training for several months, GB1 undertakes its first mission today. Their target is the Badische Anilin Company of Ludwigshafen. The raid is a moderate success, with all but one of the aircraft returning safely to base. Unfortunately, it was the squadron commander's plane that crash-landed, and he will spend the rest of the war in a POW camp.

Eastern Front: Mackensen's orders for the ongoing German offensive in Galicia emphasize the importance of the advance of XXXXI Reserve Corps

Mackensen's orders for the ongoing German offensive in Galicia emphasize the importance of the advance of XXXXI Reserve Corps. On the southern flank of 11th Army, the corps is to advance towards the Medyka-Mosciska road, the seizure of which would sever the main Russian communication and supply link to Przemsyl, while the objectives of the rest of the army are more limited. The attacks of XXXXI Corps, however, encounter heavy Russian resistance; only in the afternoon is 81st Reserve Division able to capture the town of Stubno.

Meanwhile, as the German 11th Army has advanced eastward to and across the San River, its connection with the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army to the north has necessarily stretched, with the latter forced to hold a greater length of the line. The result has been the commitment of most of 4th Army's reserves to the front line to maintain a cohesive front, leaving insufficient forces available in the event of a Russian counterattack. Overnight, this is precisely what happens: the Russian III Caucasian Corps launches an attack east of Sieniawa. The initial blow falls against the Austro-Hungarian 36th Infantry Regiment, which promptly disintegrates, and 10th Division falls back across the San River in disorder. Because of a lack of Austro-Hungarian reserves, the Germans are forced to send 19th Division from the neighbouring 11th Army to the rescue. Though the Russian attack soon bogs down and fails to cross the San, its initial success has succeeded in forcing the Germans to dispatch reinforcements that otherwise was to have contributed to Mackensen's ongoing offensive.

On the Russian side, General Ivanov of South-West Front has wavered over whether his armies should hold Przemysl, or retreat further to the east. On three occasions since the 25th he has issued orders to abandon the fortress, only to countermand them within hours. Today Russian army headquarters intervenes, instructing that Przemysl is to be held. To facilitate this, the corps on the northern flank of Przemysl, formerly of 3rd Army, are transferred to 8th Army, so that one commander - General Brusilov - can direct all of the forces at and around the fortress. In an effort to hold Przemysl, he begins shifting divisions from the southern flank of the fortress, where the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd Armies have been largely ineffective, to the northern flank to oppose the ongoing advance of the German 11th Army.

Map: The Russian attack at Sieniawa, just north of the offensive of the German 11th Army, May 27th, 1915



Ottoman Empire: The Provisional Law Concerning the Measures to be Taken by the Military Authorities Against Those Who Oppose the Operations of the Government During Wartime is approved

Today the Ottoman cabinet approves The Provisional Law Concerning the Measures to be Taken by the Military Authorities Against Those Who Oppose the Operations of the Government During Wartime, which provides the legal basis for the ongoing deportation and mass murder of the Armenian population. It gives army and local officials sweeping power to take whatever means they deem necessary to deal with any real or perceived opposition to the persecution of the war, and in particular authorized the forced relocation of entires towns and villages 'in response to military needs, or in response to any signs of treachery and betrayal.' The ongoing paranoia of the Young Turk leadership combined with the catalogue of battlefield defeats ensures that Ottoman officials see 'signs' of resistance everywhere - indeed, if the Ottomans are doing poorly someone must be to blame, and that group must be purged from Ottoman society. This is to be the fate of the Armenian population in particular, and though massacres predated the law, the pace of extermination will accelerate afterward its proclamation.

Naval operations: Celtic Sea

Claus Hansen, commanding U-41, captures SS CADEBY, 1,130 tons, traveling from Oporto to Hull with a load of pitwood. After the crew have abandoned ship, CADEBY is sunk by gunfire. Hansen's score is now 12 ships and 12,729 tons.

Naval operations: Aegean Sea:

Otto Hersing, in U-21, scores his second major warship in three days, sinking the pre-dreadnough battleship HMS MAJESTIC, 14,900 tons. He then heads for home with a total of 8 ships and 36,826 tons.

Photo: MAJESTIC sinking at the Dardanelles



Naval operations: Italian Somaliland

After bailing water from HMS SEVERN all night, at 0800 sailors start caulking the leaks with lead wire and oakum, all while being towed at 5 knots. The convoy then accelerates to their previous pace.

Day 306 of the Great War, May 29th 1915

Western Front: Germans repel a French atack at Souchez

In continued fighting in Artois a French attack along the road near the village of Souchez along the road leading to Aix-Noulette is repulsed by the German 85th Reserve Brigade.

East African campaign: Lettow-Vorbeck gives orders to Kurt Wahle

In January 1915 the Belgian administration in the Congo had drawn up plans for a two-pronged attack on the western frontier of German East Africa: an advance overland to seize Ruanda and Urundi, and the concentration of a flotilla to seize control of Lake Tanganyika. Word of this threat has reached German Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck, who has ordered the transfer of forces to Bismarckburg, and today he appoints as the commander of of the west Kurt Wahle, a retired major-general who happened to be in the colony on the outbreak of war. Lettow-Vorbeck, however, is not content merely to parry a Belgian thrust; instead, his instructions to Wahle state that his task is 'not border protection or the pushing back of the enemy, but a decisive success.'

Naval operations: Celtic Sea

Clause Hansen, commanding U-41, finishes his second war patrol by sinking three more ships - Portuguese steamer SS CYSNE, 623 tons, inbound from Oporto to Newport with an unspecified cargo, and British merchants SS DIXIANA, 3,329 tons, traveling from Savanna to Le Havre with a load of cotton and pig iron, plus mixed goods, and SS GLENLEE, 4,140 tons, carrying a load of coal from Barry to Aden. Hansen then heads for home.

Naval operations: Adriatic Sea, off the east coast of Italy

Egon Lerch, in Austro-Hungarian submarine U-12, sinks the Greek merchant SS VIRGINIA, 1,065 tons, traveling in ballast from an unnamed port to Trieste. This his his only sinking - he has previously taken a series of small sailboats of unspecified tonnage as prizes, for an unspecified total, and putting the French battleship JEAN BART out of action for many months.

Naval operations: British Somaliland

The monitors' convoy has their fastest day yet - 153 miles. Wireless communication is established with the squadron at Rufiji, and Admiral King-Hall informs Captain Fullerton that the tug T.A. JOLIFFE has arrived safely. On the other hand HMS SEVERN has started to list again and now MERSEY is down by the bow. In the afternoon the convoy is caught in a series of rain squalls, making it impossible to take land sightings.

Naval operations: German East Africa

HMS LACONIA reports heavy rain during the afternoon, inhibiting patrols.

Day 308 of the Great War, May 31st 1915

Western Front: French XXXIII Corps attack towards Souchez

This evening the French XXXIII Corps attack towards Souchez, and manages to seize the trenches on the northern and sourthern flanks of the sugar factory to the west of the village.

Eastern Front: Russians prepared an immediate counterattack

After the fall of Pralowce yesterday at dusk, the Russians prepared an immediate counterattack. A heavy artillery barrage opens at 3am, and waves of Russian infantry are able to overwhelm the Austro-Hungarian defenders by mid-morning. On the northern flank of Przemysl, however, 11th Bavarian Division is able to occupy three important defensive positions after intensive bombardment by heavy mortars forced the Russian defenders to abandon their entrenchments and fall back.

Meanwhile, to the southeast of Przemysl the Austro-Hungarian 27th Division seizes the first Russian trench line on the heights at Gaj. However, the Russians are able to fall back to prepared reserve positions, and in light of the strength of the enemy defences the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army postpones further attacks until June 2nd, to give time for the infantry to work their way closer to the Russian line. Further to the southeast, Südarmee makes progress, capturing the city of Stryj and over nine thousand Russian prisoners.

Map: The advance of Südarmee, May 31st to June 3rd, 1915



Mesopotamian campaign: Battle of Amara (Second Battle of Qurna)

General Townshend's 6th Indian Division launches its attack on the Ottoman defensive positions north of Qurna at 5am this morning. On the surface the Ottoman position is strong - seasonal floods has transformed much of the countryside into marsh, meaning the Indian infantry can only attack the enemy defences by front amphibious assaults. However, in the event the attack is easier than Townshend expected, as the Ottoman defenders break under artillery fire from the British flotilla and surrender in large numbers. By the end of the day, the landing force has seized their initial objectives and are advancing on the main Ottoman line around Bahran.

Naval operations: Kaiser and chancellor and unrestricted submarine warfare

Despite the order from the Kaiser on May 10th to avoid the targeting of neutral ships, steamers from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been sunk by German submarines over the past few weeks. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg realizes that the navy has ignored the imperial instruction, and thus convenes a meeting with the kaiser and the military chiefs today to resolve the matter. Here the chief of staff of the navy once again asserts that it is impossible to modify unrestricted submarine warfare, and again argued for its continuation. The Kaiser, not wanting to appear weak before his military chiefs and the German public, now states that the prior order not to target neutral ships could only be published if it was endorsed personally by the chancellor, a qualification Bethmann-Hollweg accepts.

Naval operations: British East Africa

In the midst of overcast skies and rain squalls, dead reckoning places the monitors' convoy roughly 28 miles off the African mainland, east of Mombasa. Captain Fullerton decides that since they are close enough to not be in danger of running out of coal it is time for the tugs to start doing their job again. HMS MERSEY is taken in tow by SARAH JOLIFFE and REVENGER, and SEVERN by BLACKCOOK. This operation takes three hours while the convoy drifts several miles northward.

An Examination Officer comes out from Mombasa in a steam launch and demands to inspect the convoy. Captain Fullerton urges him to leave the word "monitor" out of his report, and the Officer tells him that SEVERN and MERSEY have already been reported by a passing Norwegian freighter, and everybody knows they are coming.*

Naval operations: German East Africa

HMS LACONIA launches Short 121 on another reconnaisance flight, which lasted from 1000 to 1100 hours.