The Great War (1914-1918) in real time

Day 284 of the Great War, May 6th 1915

Eastern Front: Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive

In west Galicia, detachments from the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, as well as several Landsturm brigades, occupy the badly-damaged city of Tarnow, already evacuated by the retreating Russian IX Corps. Other elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army reach the west bank of the Wisloka River this evening, but due to exhaustion a crossing is postponed until tomorrow.

To the south, the main advance of the German 11th Army continues apace; Guard Corps captures Jaslo, while XLI Reserve Corps, advancing towards Rymanow, reaches the town of Zrecyn. X Corps, meanwhile, reorientates itself to face south at Dukla, attempting to capture those Russian forces still south of the pass. Of the latter, XII Corps, after hard fighting with the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army, is able to withdraw to the northeast. The two divisions of the Russian XXIV Corps, however, endure a greater trial: 49th Division is badly decimated before it can reach safety south of Kosno, and 48th Division, commanded by General Lavr Kornilov, is repulsed by 11th Bavarian Division and falls back to Mszana, where it is attacked by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Landwehr Division, and begins to break up. General Dimitriev, meanwhile, informs General Ivanov that a further retreat of his 3rd Army will almost certainly be necessary.

Map: The German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, May 6th to 9th, 1915



Naval operations - Dardanelles campaign

As soon as the first Entente push to Krithia had failed on April 28th, General Hamilton began planning for another attack, as without occupying Krithia and the high ground to the immediate north the Ottomans would remain in firm control of both Gallipoli and the Dardanelles. Additional reinforcements have now arrived, with 125th Brigade of 42nd Division, having just landed yesterday, taking up position along the west coast. In addition, 2nd Australian and the New Zealand Brigades, on loan from ANZAC, were deployed between 87th and 88th Brigades and the French to the east.

Despite the reinforcements, however, the attack is no more successful than the first attempt. Again and again Entente infantry find their advance held up by well-concealed machine gun nests and the rugged terrain, and at no point are they able to advance more than four hundred metres or gain anything of significance. Notwithstanding today's failure, Hamilton orders a resumption of the attack tomorrow morning.

Naval operations: Saudi Arabia

Just before noon today Emden's landing party arrives at El Ula, after a four days' journey from the coast. After the bitter fight in the desert the caravan entrenched each night, but did not encounter any resistance. On arrival in the village they are met with a warm reception, as they had been expected by the local Ottoman garrison. In addition to delicacies of all kind from peaches to Rhenish wine, most importantly of all they find a steam train specially chartered to take them north. After an abundant meal and the first bath in months, the men of the landing party board the train and begin the rail journey northwards at thirty kilometres an hour.

Photo: EMDEN'S landing party arriving at El Ula, May 6th, 1915.



Naval operations: off Cephalonia on the Greek west coast

The Austro-Hungarian light cruiser NOVARA, commanded by Captian Miklós Horthy is intercepted by French warships, but is able to use its superior speed to escape back into the Adriatic. NOVARA had been towing the German submarine UB8 for deployment in the Aegean, and had cast off the submarine unseen by the French. Now on its own, UB8 makes its way eastward.

Photo: NOVARA during the war

Day 286 of the Great War, May 8th 1915

Western Front: Second Battle of Ypres

After several days of artillery bombardment by both sides, the German XXVII Corps launches an attack at 1030am this morning against the British 28th Division holding the eastern face of the Ypres salient. Though the Germans are able to get into the forward British trench, the attack grinds to a halt.

United States of America: aftermath of the sinking of the LUSITANIA

It is during lunch today that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson is first informed of the sinking of the passenger liner LUSITANIA yesterday afternoon. By evening the president knows that over a thousand lives have been lost, a number that includes over a hundred American citizens. The attack calls for a response from the American government, a burden that Wilson takes entirely as his own. This evening he slips out of the White House and walks along Pennsylvania Avenue alone in a light rain. For his entire adult life Wilson has been driven by a stern and absolute Presbyterian faith, one that has inspired his life of public service and is the foundation of his political creed. How the sinking of Lusitania fits with his moralistic view of the world is the question the American president now grapples with. Later this evening Wilson returns to the White House and retreats to his study, deep in thought.

Eastern Front: Battle of the Dniester

- In a sharp attack today the German 11th Army seizes the heights between Besko and Frysztak just to the west of the Wislok River in Galicia, while to the north the German Guards Corps secures a bridgehead across the Wislok and to the south X Corps threatens to drive a gap between the Russian XXIV and XXI Corps. The loss of the high ground in particular deprives the Russian 3rd Army of its best defensive positions in the area, prompting General Dimitriev to once again request permission to withdraw his battered army behind the San River. Once again, however, Russian army headquarters refuses, despite the fact that the line they had ordered 3rd Army to hold is now in German hands. Dimitriev thus turns to the planned counterattack of XXI Corps as the only hope to relieve the pressure on his army, though the corps will not be in position to advance until tomorrow evening.

Dardanelles campaign: Second Battle of Krithia

This morning General Hamilton orders yet another attack towards Krithia on Cape Helles. The warships offshore have done their best to destroy the Ottoman defences, but in the roughed terrain it is practically impossible to precisely strike well-concealed positions; in one case, naval fire practically cut off the top of the cliff at Gully Spur, but the machine guns the bombardment was aiming for remained in place. This time it is the New Zealand Brigade that bears the brunt of the fighting, advancing against withering fire and suffering heavily. By early afternoon the attack had collapsed, but another is ordered at 4pm, in which the entire Entente line, spearheaded by 2nd Australian Brigade, was to fix bayonets and charge the enemy line. The attack, like the others before it, is a dismal failure, and by nightfall the survivors are ordered to entrench where they are.

Map: Second Battle of Krithia



Naval operations: North Sea

Johannes Spieß, commanding U-9, sinks two British freighters: SS DON, 939 tons, bound from Comarty to Blyth in ballast, and QUEEN WILHELMINA, 3,590 tons, tavelling from Leith to Fowey, also in ballast. His score is now 12 ships and 6,438 tons.

Aboard U-36 Ernst Graeff scores his first victory, sinking the Danish freighter LILIAN DROST, 1,966 tons, heading from Blyth to Copenhagen with a load of coal.

Naval operations: Saudi Arabia

Hellmuth von Mücke and his men say goodbye to Suleiman Pasha and board the special train assigned to take them from Al Ula across the Turkish Empire to Constantinople.

Day 286 of the Great War, May 10th 1915

Germany: aftermath of the sinking of the LUSITANIA

- Almost since the outbreak of the war the German government has been fighting a losing battle over its image abroad among neutrals. While Entente propaganda has undoubtedly made its mark, views on Germany have been inevitably tainted by the way in which it has conducted the war, as more recent incidents such as the use of gas at Ypres and the sinking of Lusitania join with such older episodes as the Rape of Belgium to cast Germany as the villain. The German government has attempted to counter such impressions since the first weeks of the war, and today publishes a White Book on the German occupation of Belgium. Its title - The Conduct of the War by the Belgian People in Violation of International Law - says all that needs to be said regarding its aim. Its objectivity is questionable at best and much dubious 'evidence' is included, and does little to dissuade those who already believe in German perfidy from continuing to do so. Moreover, the Germans are not the only ones who can publish reports . . .

- Even as the German government attempts to defend its conduct of the war, the latest outrage - the sinking of the passenger liner LUSITANIA - is provoking a violent reaction in Britain, especially in Liverpool and other west coast ports in which many of the dead resided. For these civilians, the torpedoing of LUSITANIA is seen as culmination of a German campaign of deliberate barbarism that has included the Rape of Belgium, the bombardment of Scarborough and other towns, Zeppelin bombing raids, and the use of gas at Ypres. For many the news of LUSITANIA'S loss is the final straw, and over the past few days anti-German riots have broken out in several British cities, including most prominently Liverpool, the destination of the doomed liner. Large crowds rampage through commercial districts, attacking any shop identified as being owned by Germans and looting its contents. Local police struggle to maintain order, with hundreds arrested. Today is the worst day of violence in Liverpool, and hardly a single commercial enterprise owned by a German remains unscathed at the end of the day. While the violence builds on existing anti-German sentiments and indeed xenophobia, they also arise from the general sense among the British public that the German methods of waging war are a fundamental threat to Western civilization, and that the war is not only worth fighting but must be fought until absolute victory can be secured and 'Prussian militarism', as it is often referred to, is crushed forever. Whether right or not, such views are genuinely held by much of the British public, and go some way to explaining the overwhelming support for the continuation of the war in the months and years ahead.

- A more measured reaction to the sinking of LUSITANIA is seen today in the United States when President Woodrow Wilson delivers a speech before fifteen thousand in Philadelphia. After several days of deliberation, he has come to the conclusion that an immediate declaration of war is not the proper course of action. More crucially, imbued with a moral sense of American righteousness, he proclaims to the assembled crowd that:

. . . the example of America must be a special example . . . the example, not merely of peace because it will not fight, but of peace because peace is the healing and elevating influence of the world and strife is not. There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight. There is such a thing as a nation being so right that it does not need to convince others by force that is is right.

Wilson's proclamation is greeted by prolonged cheering. In Britain, perhaps not surprisingly, the president's words are not so welcome - Wilson's high-minded rhetoric appears completely divorced from the perceived reality of a struggle for civilization, and there is little inclination to take lessons in morality from someone whose country is resolutely on the sidelines.

- In Germany, reaction to the sinking of LUSITANIA has been mixed. Much of the public, convinced that the liner was carrying munitions, celebrates its destruction, as does the naval leadership. For the Chancellor and the Kaiser, the sinking is seen as a disaster. Wilhelm II directly orders the naval chief of staff that

. . . for the immediate future, no neutral vessel shall be sunk. This is necessary on political ground for which the chancellor is responsible. It is better than an enemy ship be allowed to pass than that a neutral shall be destroyed.

Learning of the Kaiser's order, Bethmann-Hollweg informally conveys to Washington that German submarines have been instructed to avoid neutral vessels. Unfortunately for the pair, the naval chief of staff is committed to unrestricted submarine warfare, and in an act of deliberate insubordination does not convey the Kaiser's order to the fleet. For now the ostensible leaders of Germany are kept in the dark.

Western Front: Battle of Aubers Ridge

In Artois today the French 10th Army attacks all along the German line, attempting to repeat the fleeting success of yesterday. Overall the French attacks fail: an attempt to move further east on the Lorette spur was held, and repeated attacks by 70th Division at Carency were also repulsed. However, a German counterattack by elements of 58th and 11th Divisions also fails, and the French XXXIII Corps is able to maintain control of the ground seized yesterday. This salient also leaves German positions at Carency and Ablain just to the north almost isolated, and the commander of the German 28th Division, responsible for this section of line, is concerned that the villages may have to be abandoned.

Further north, in light of the complete failure of the attacks of yesterday, Sir John French calls off the British offensive towards Aubers Ridge early this morning. General Haig, whose 1st Army had been responsible for the operation, is dismayed at the failure. Writing in his diary, he concludes that the defeat 'showed that we are confronted by a carefully prepared position, which is held by a most determined enemy, with numerous machine guns.' To overcome such defences, Haig believes that an 'accurate and so fairly long' preliminary bombardment will be necessary in future to ensure enemy strong points are destroyed before the infantry advance. However understandable Haig's conclusions may be, he is learning the wrong lessons.

Eastern Front: Russian counterattack in Galicia is launched

Overnight the Russian counterattack in Galicia is launched, with 44th Division advancing towards Jacmierz into the gap between 11th Bavarian and 119th Divisions and 33rd Division to the south advancing towards Besko. Though the Russians are able to initially gain some ground, the German commanders are more than equal to the task. To the north, 11th Bavarian Division pushes back the southern flank of XXIV Russian Corps to the north, which creates space for the German 20th Division to come up from its reserve position and launch a attack co-ordinated with 119th Division on the Russian 44th Division, throwing the latter back. To the south, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps secures the high ground near Odrzechowa, threatening the flank of the Russian 33rd Division. By nightfall the Russians have been repulsed and are retreating eastward towards Sanok.

The counterattack by the Russian XXI Corps had been the last throw of the dice for 3rd Army, and its defeat means any hope of holding the Germans west of the San River has evaporated. General Ivanov's chief of staff sends a despondent message to Stavka this evening, stating that the army is shattered and the situation is hopeless, and the only option is a pell-mell retreat eastwards: Przemysl will have to be surrendered, the Germans will soon invade the Ukraine, and Kiev should be fortified. The chief of staff is promptly fired, but Stavka finally acknowledges reality and finally acquiesces today to General Dimitriev's repeated requests to retreat behind the San, 3rd Army is a mere shell of its former self. Of the 200 000 men it had on May 2nd, only 40 000 remain to retreat eastwards today, and this despite 3rd Army having received 50 000 replacements in the meantime. Further, the Germans have taken 140 000 prisoners, reflecting the shattered morale of the Russian infantry. Some of its formations have simply ceased to exist: IX Corps has suffered 80% casualties, while III Caucasus Corps, which was sent into the battle on May 4th to restore the situation, has instead lost 75% of its strength in the six days since.

The strategic implications of the crushing defeat suffered by 3rd Army also continue to spread. In order to maintain some semblance of coherent line on the Eastern Front, Stavka issues orders for the southern flank of 4th Army to pull back east almost to the confluence of the San and Vistula Rivers, while 8th Army in the Carpathians will have to retreat to the northeast and reorientate to face to the west instead of the south.

Map: The German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, May 10th to 12th, 1915



Italy: effects of the Treaty of London

- Though the Treaty of London had been signed on April 26th, details remained to be finalized regarding the nature of Italian co-operation with the Entente, and at sea Italy is in particular eager to secure substantial naval support in the Adriatic. Today in Paris a naval convention is signed between Britain, France, and Italy which calls for the creation of an allied fleet in the Adriatic under Italian command, to which the French would contribute twelve destroyers, a seaplane carrier, and a number of torpedo-boats and submarines, while the British pledged to dispatch four pre-dreadnoughts and four light cruisers. The British reinforcements in particular, however, are to be drawn from the fleet off the Dardanelles, and will not be sent to the Adriatic until they have been replaced by similar warships from France. This detail will be the source of friction between the allies once Italy formally enters the war.

- For Italian Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, the driving force behind Italian intervention on the side of the Entente, the struggle now is to carry the rest of the Italian government with them into the war. This is no easy task, as many politicians do not share their passionate desire for intervention. Instead, a vague desire for neutrality is the most common sentiment, a position to which some within the Cabinet itself adhere to. Moreover, King Victor Emmanuel is unreliable; just yesterday he proclaimed to Salandra his uncertainty as to the right course of action for Italy and the possiblity of abdicating in favour of his uncle the Duke of Aosta. There is also the necessity of securing a majority in parliament for war, which is far from assured. Finally and perhaps of most concern to the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, there is an alternative political leader known to oppose intervention: Giovanni Giolitti, who has served as prime minister on no fewer than four occasions from 1892 to 1914. The possibility exists that if Salandra and Sonnino cannot carry either the cabinet or parliament in support of intervention, Giolitti may form a government pledged, at minimum, to strict neutrality, if not a pro-German attitude. Indeed, when German Ambassador Bülow browbeats the Austro-Hungarian ambassador today to agree to further concessions, he communicates the offer not to the goverment but to Giolitti; the Germans see Giolitti as the last chance to keep Italy out of the war.

For all of the difficulties that Salandra and Sonnino face, the forces opposed to intervention are not without their own problems. Giolitti is 73 years old, and both his grip on and influence in Italian politics is not what it once was. He also has little desire to form a government led by himself, fearing he would be branded as a lackey of Austria, and crucially communicates this belief to Victor Emmanuel in an interview this afternoon, which does much to calm the nerves of the king. Salandra and Giolitti also meet this afternoon, and the former sufficiently dissembles to leave the latter with the impression that he is not wholeheartedly committed to war. Still, it is possible that Giolitti may still instruct his supporters in parliament to vote against the war when it reconvenes on May 20th. The next ten days will thus determine not only whether Italy enters the war, but indeed the future course of Italian politics overall.

Naval operations - Dardanelles campaign

- Today Admiral de Robeck cables the Admiralty a proposal for a renewed naval attack on the Dardanelles. The suggestion originated in a meeting with Commodore Keyes, who remains a strong advocate of naval action, and is convinced that futher naval pressure can yet secure victory. Robeck is more doubtful, and his message reflects his continued pessimism. Even if a naval attack succeeds, 'the temper of the Turkish army in the peninsula indicates that the forcing of the Dardanelles and subsequent appearance of the fleet off Constantinople would not of itself prove decisive. These are hardly fighting words, but Keyes hopes that even a tepid proposal will inspire Churchill to order another attempt.

- Near the mouth of the Bosporus the Russian Black Sea Fleet makes another appearance to bombard the forts, and this time the recently-repaired ex-German battlecruiser GOEBEN makes a brief appearance. The Germans are dismayed to discover that the 12-inch guns of the outdated Russian pre-dreadnoughts can still fire farther than the 11-inch guns of GOEBEN. After the battlecruiser takes two glancing blows it uses its superior speed to break off the battle and return to the Sea of Marmara.

Naval operations: North Sea

Ernst Graeff, commanding U-36, takes two prizes - Swedish steamer SS BJORN, 1,241 tons, carrying a load of timber from Göteborg to the United Kingdom, and the Dutch freighter SS NIOBE, 654 tons, destination and cargo unlisted. Graeff will only recieve credit for BJORN, as the prize court will later release NIOBE. His score is now 2 ships and 3,237 tons.

Walter Forstmann in U-39 captures Danish steamer SS OLGA, 798 tons. This ship will also be released by the prize court.

Naval operations: Red Sea

The day is extremely hot. Captain Fullerton aboard TRENT tells the tugs' captains that he will send fresh meat and ice when the sea is calmer.

Day 289 of the Great War, May 12th 1915

Western Front: Second Battle of Artois

This morning General d'Urbal of the French 10th Army meets with his corps commanders to refocus the ongoing offensive in Artois. He decides to focus on seizing the ruined villages of Souchez and Neuville, and instructs XXXIII Corps to clear Carency before advancing on Souchez, with XX Corps to the south moving on Neuville and XXI Corps to the north clearing Notre-Dame de Lorette. A series of French attacks this afternoon, however, fail to make noticeable progress, though a German counterattack in the early evening south of Souchez also fails. As night falls, however, elements of XXXIII Corps occupy what remains of Carency as the Germans fall back towards Souchez. Feeling the situation perilous, the commander of the German XIV Corps orders the construction of a new trench line running from the Lorette spur to the church at Ablain and south to Souchez as a fallback position.

Map: The German line north of Arras, May 12th, 1915. Note Carency to the west of Souchez, captured today by Pétain's XXXIII Corps.



Meanwhile Joffre and Foch meet today with Sir John French, and the French generals complain about the decision to call off the British offensive at Aubers Ridge just a day after it had begun. From Joffre's perspective the British decision has placed the French offensive in Artois in jeopardy, as since the 10th two German divisions have moved south to contest the French advance. Joffre and Foch manage to extract from the BEF commander a promise to take measures to more actively support the French, either by relieving French divisions or by attacking German positions.

Eastern Front: German and Austro-Hungarian armies are able to reach today's objectives with minimal fighting

- With the Russian armies retreating to the San River in Galicia, the advancing German and Austro-Hungarian armies are able to reach today's objectives with minimal fighting. The leadership of the two armies, meanwhile, meet today at Pless in Silesia, where the Kaiser has made his headquarters, to discuss the next phase of the operation. It is agreed that once again the German 11th Army will undertake the primary offensive, attacking on both sides of the town of Jaroslau and securing a bridgehead over the San River north of Przemysl. To the south the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army will cover Przemysl itself, which, despite damage in the spring, may yet constitute a strongpoint in the Russian line. Further south the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army and Südarmee will pursue the Russians as they fall back from the Carpathians, while the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will cover the northern flank of the Germany 11th Army up to the Vistula River.

Also today, south of Dukla a small group of officers from the former Russian 48th Division, including its commander General Kornilov, are captured today.

- This morning in east Galicia elements of the Russian XXXIII Corps occupy the town of Horodenka, which had just hours before been abandoned by Austro-Hungarian units that had been battered after three days of constant fighting and reduced to less than half strength. The loss of Horodenka unhinges the Austro-Hungarian defence, and effectively turns the flank of the right wing of 7th still holding the Dniester River to the east. Reluctantly General Pflanzer-Baltin orders these forces to retreat south to the next river line along the Pruth.

Italy: Italian cabinet meets in Rome for a decisive session

- Today the Italian cabinet meets in Rome for a decisive session. As Prime Minister Salandra declares, the time has come to decide between peace and war, and he drops any pretence of 'choosing' between two offers and instead openly advocates for war against Austria-Hungary. Not everyone in Cabinet is fully convinced, however, and there remains the issue of parliamentary support. Salandra pledges to consult party leaders about intervention, though he believes the responses will tend towards neutrality.

Naval operations: Red Sea

Collier KENDAL CASTLE is sent forward to Aden to make preparations for the arrival of the monitors' convoy.

Naval operations: Morto Bay off Cape Helles

For weeks Entente warships have pounded Ottoman positions on Gallipoli with impunity, as none of the shore batteries could fire shells capable of penetrating the armour of the old pre-dreadnoughts. Given their numbers, the Entente fleet has also shown no real concern with naval opposition, and largely assume they may sail and anchor as they please. Overnight, the Ottomans do their best to disabuse the British and French admirals of their misplaced faith in their invulnerability. With a full moon and heavy mist reducing visibility, the Ottoman destroy MUAVENET, captained by a German, snuck through the straits and moved up the European coast of Gallipoli. In Morto Bay, not a hundred yards offshore, the destroyer comes across the British pre-dreadnought GOLIATH at anchor, where it is waiting to continue its shore bombardment at dawn. Surging forward, MUAVENET fires three torpedoes and disappears back into the night and through the straits before anyone can react. The torpedoes strike home, and within minutes rolls over and sinks. Because the current here is four to five knots and moving away from shore, none of the British sailors in the water can swim ashore. Five hundred and seventy drown, and only one hundred and eight survive. It is a striking accomplishment for the Ottomans: the Sultan awards each sailor on MUAVENET a gold watch and a purse filled with gold.

Photo: HMS GOLIATH

Day 291 of the Great War, May 14th 1915

YouTube (The German Phalanx Chases Russia)



Dardanelles campaign: Things explode in the United Kingdom

This morning the fuse lit by Sir John French five days earlier explodes on the pages of The Times newspaper, which runs an extensive report and editorial on the recent failure at Aubers Ridge. Given the close relationship between French and the newspaper's military correspondent, it is no surprise that the coverage praises the plan for and management of the battle itself. Instead, the paper is harshly critical of the supply of both artillery shells and heavy artillery pieces, and lays blame for this failure directly on the War Office and the Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener. The proprietor of The Times, Lord Northcliffe, has come to see Kitchener not as the imperial hero, but as the stubborn incompetent whose mismanagement is damaging the British war effort. Northcliffe is not alone in this view; some within the Conservative party, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, have become exasperated with Lord Kitchener, and feel he must go if Britain is to fully mobilize its industry in support of the war.

The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated. Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst. In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort. This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.

This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th. With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli. Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room. Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.

Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that QUEEN ELIZABETH is being withdrawn. Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships. After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles. It is a fateful decision.

As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst. For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet. He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support. Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician. Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.' The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.

Western Front: French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois

Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez. On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today. However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line. In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.

Eastern Front: German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl

- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.

- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday. Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.

Italy: Radiant Days of May

The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public. In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment. What happens next, however, will transform the political situation. Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary. This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August. These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat. Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order. In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.

These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds. Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion. The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.

Naval operations - Dardanelles campaign


Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles. In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.' The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.

Naval operations: Syria

The special train carrying Hellmuth von Mücke and his men arrives in Damascus.

Day 293 of the Great War, May 16th 1915

Western Front: General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army

General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army today, incorporating the revised instructions from General Foch. He envisions a series of methodical attacks, each designed to seize a particular objective from which the next assaut would be launched, culminating with the seizure of Vimy Ridge. In the centre, XXXIII Corps was to capture five points before launching its main attack on the village of Souchez, while XXI Corps had three positions of its own to occupy before assisting XXXIII Corps to seize Souchez. The first of these attacks is scheduled to begin tomorrow. On the German side, the units holding the line have gotten hopelessly mixed up over the past week, as companies and battalions have been sent haphazardly to plug gaps in the line and confront the main French assaults. As such, most of the day is devoted to reorganizing the defence, and in particular to straightening out the chain of command for the artillery batteries so that each stretch of the front line had dedicated artillery support. The battered 58th Division is also pulled out of the line, replaced by 16th Division.

To the north, the British 2nd Division launches an attack at dawn near Festubert, and a small amount of progress is made. For the rest of the day British artillery pound the German lines, in preparation for another effort tomorrow.

Eastern Front: Gorlice-Tarnow offensive

- As a result of the success of the German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, the Russian line in central Poland has been pulled back, to avoid a gap opening between the Russian 4th Army, mostly north of the Vistula River, and 3rd Army to the south. Following the Russians are the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army and an army group under German General Remus von Woyrsch composed of both German and Austro-Hungarian units. As the two forces pursue the retreating Russians, Woyrsch's group is pulled to the northeast, while 1st Army moves to the east, opening a small gap between them. Here, near Opatow, the Russian 4th Army counterattacks today, and the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division is thrown back several kilometres and suffers heavy casualties. The sudden Russian riposte brings Woyrsch's group and 1st Army to halt as they move to contain the unexpected enemy advance.

Map: The Battle of Opatow, May 16th to 20th, 1915



- Along the San River the German 11th Army attempt several crossings. The main action is at Jaroslau, which is occupied today by the German 2nd Guard Division. Here the town's Jewish population warns the Germans that the Russians have mined the bridge over the San, and shortly thereafter the bridge explodes and falls into the river. The Elisabeth Regiment of 2nd Guard Division then crosses the San at 530pm under the protection of heavy artillery and machine gun fire, and by evening a Russian counterattack has been driven off and the bridgehead is secure. To the north, 92nd Regiment of 20th Division is able to cross the San west of Miazownica, giving X Corps a shallow bridgehead. Thus by the end of the day, 11th Army has breached the river line at two places.

Map: The advance of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies at Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 16th to 20th, 1915



Italy: pro-war demonstration grips the capital

In Italy the 'Radiant Days of May' are already passing; though a large pro-war demonstration grips the capital today, elsewhere the number and size of such gatherings are in decline. Despite its ephemeral nature, the 'Radiant Days' have completely altered the balance of interventionist vs neutralist opinion among the political classes in favour of the former. After Salandra's resignation on the 13th, Victor Emmanuel had canvassed several other parliamentary leaders, including Giolitti, about their ability to form a government. All had declined, seeing the shift of opinion towards intervention as decisive. This afternoon the king summons Salandra to Villa Savoia, and meets the politician at the gate with a simple declaration: 'It is necessary that you withdraw your declaration.' Salandra agrees, and his cabinet formally returns to office, and Italian entry into the war is now a certainty.

Naval operations: Mediterranean Sea

The Austro-Hungarian destroyer TRIGLAV successfully tows the German coastal submarine UB7 through the Straits of Otranto, evading the Entente blockade, and the latter then makes its way eastward towards the Dardanelles.

Photo: TRIGLAV in port circa 1915



Naval operations: Churchill visits the Prime Minister

Realizing that Admiral Fisher is serious about resignation, Churchill visits the Prime Minister today. He offers his own resignation, hoping for a vote of confidence from Asquith that will allow him to replace Fisher and continue as First Lord of the Admiralty. This is exactly what Asquith gives him today, saying that he had not even thought of Churchill resigning. Buoyed, the First Lord secures the agreement of Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson to replace Fisher as the First Sea Lord, and the other Sea Lords consent to remaining in office. Churchill then prepares a parliamentary address for tomorrow's session to announce Fisher's resignation and defend his own conduct. It is a speech, however, he will never get to deliver.

Naval operations: Zanzibar

HMS CHATHAM departs the area, bound for Aden and eventually Gallipoli.

HMS HYACINTH and WEYMOUTH depart Zanzibar for Tirene.

HMS KINFUANS CASTLE departs Durban for Simons Town, South Africa.

HMS LACONIA patrols the channel between Niororo and Mafia Islands.

Naval operations: Syria

The train carrying Hellmuth von Mücke and his men arrives at Aleppo.