Post by simon darkshade on Jul 29, 2018 4:17:13 GMT
Battle of the Pusan Perimeter
June 2nd-August 1st 1950
The Pusan Perimeter
The defensive perimeter around the port of Pusan extended in a curve for almost 225 miles from the Korea Strait to the Sea of Japan. The northern arm was covered heavy mountainous terrain, with the west mainly following the line of the Naktong River. The hot Korean summer had scoured the land, leaving little vegetation or potable water. The ongoing drought saw temperature soar to above 110 degrees, adding to the suffering of both sides.
The North Korean Army mustered a force of nearly 190,000 men, comprising fifteen infantry and two armoured divisions supported by powerful armoured elements equipped with T-34 tanks and a strong artillery force. Their logistical support capacity had been stretched to its absolute limit by the speed of their invasion, however, and supply and reinforcement was to prove decidedly difficult in the face of Allied air power.
The Eighth United States Army provided the headquarters for the Allied ground forces, based out of Taegu. The South Korean Army's six divisions manned the northern flank of the Perimeter, with the American 1st Cavalry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 24th Infantry Division and 6th Infantry Division manning the Naktong Front, augmented by two reinforced brigades of the 1st Marine Division and the 5th Regimental Combat Team. The British 3rd Infantry Division and the ad hoc Commonwealth Division held the southernmost end of the line where Naktong turned towards the east. The understrength 7th Infantry and 11th Airborne Divisions were held in operational reserve in Japan.
The port of Pusan was of vital importance to the Allied position in Korea, with supplies and reinforcements pouring in from Japan and the United States and the airfields around the city providing the means for the forward deployment of tactical fighters. Should it have fell, the Allies would have been forced to fight their way ashore in order to return to Korea.
First Battle of the Naktong
The battles around Pusan began on June 2nd with the North Koreans launching a massive artillery barrage at Waegwan, followed by a tank and artillery assault. The US 1st Cavalry Division was sorely pressed, but held their position along the Naktong thanks to heavy air support, five battalions of 105mm field howitzers firing over open sights and the timely arrival of a battalion of M-4E8 Shermans. Infiltration attacks continued over the next 10 days, but US superiority in field artillery and mortars prevented any substantial rupture in the line.
Counteroffensive
The Eighth Army launched a counteroffensive near the southern end of the line at the end of the first week of June, with the US 2nd Infantry Division, the 1st and 2nd US Marine Brigades and the British 3rd Infantry Division pushing towards the Nam River and the Chingu Pass. The Allied forces were heavily supported by airstrikes, naval gunfire from RN battleships offshore and a concentrated artillery bombardment. The attack encountered initial success before being bogged down along the Nam River in the face of strong Red defensive lines and a confused tank battle along the northern edge of the salient. By June 11th, the Marines had been withdrawn to reinforce the heavily pressed Naktong Bulge to the north and the new front line stabilized along the Nam at a cost of almost 1400 Allied casualties.
First Battle of the Naktong Bulge
On June 5th, the North Korean Army launched an offensive on the Naktong Bulge, a westward curve opposite Yongsan 10 miles to the north of the watersmeet of the Naktong and Nam, with two infantry and one armoured division pushing against positions held by the 25th Infantry Division. Over the next week, continual attacks and bombardments were launched against the US held positions to divide their forces and fire support, prior to an assault crossing of the Naktong by the North Korean 4th Infantry Division under the cover of newly arrived Soviet 180mm and 240mm heavy guns. Bitter fighting raged around the key controlling position of Cloverleaf Hill, with gradual North Korean advances being made at a frightful cost.
The provisional 1st US Marine Division, consisting of two brigades with tank and artillery regiments, was moved northward to clear the Reds from Cloverleaf Hill, attacking with heavy mortar and artillery support and concentrated airstrikes from Marine Corsairs on June 15th. After initial strong resistance, the Marines broke the supporting North Korean trench lines and systematically destroyed position after position in a well organized combined arms engagement. By dawn on June 16th, the North Korean forces had been effectively destroyed, with survivors streaming back across the Naktong amid relentless air strikes.
Battle of Taegu
On June 16th, the positions held by the US 1st Cavalry Division around Waegwun and the 25th Infantry Division around Taegu were attacked by five North Korean divisions. The well dug in American troops were amply supplied with mortars, artillery, heavy machine guns and Sherman tanks and encountered comparatively little difficulty in repulsing the initial Red forays. Repeated attempts were made to cross the Naktong in force, with bridgeheads being hammered by USN and USAF airstrikes and both US divisions were able to inflict substantial casualties upon the attackers. One infantry company of the 1st Cavalry was overrun on Hill 303, which was recaptured by US forces after heavy bombardment by artillery and napalm. The bodies of sixty seven American soldiers were found with their hands bound and gunshot wounds to the back, causing considerable outrage in the United States. The Battle of Taegu came to an end on July 6th.
Battle of the Nam River
The British 3rd Division and the Commonwealth Division positions along the Nam were struck by a heavy attack on June 18th by three North Korean divisions. The main line of defence held out against constant bombardment and infiltration attacks over the next three days, with some strongpoints only being saved by calling artillery down on their own positions. All Commonwealth reserve formations were fully committed to the battle along the Nam, which opened up a lightly defended flank along the hill line north of Kosong.
A further North Korean division struck along the Kosong hill line during the night of June 21st, cutting off Macforce, a battlegroup centred around the 2nd Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders under Lt. Colonel David Mackenzie. Macforce was isolated over the course of the 22nd of June, with their only support coming from a battery of long range 6" guns at Masan and carrier aircraft from the RN task force offshore. On the 23rd, the battlegroup came under attack by a full North Korean infantry regiment, eventually being pushed back to Hill 32. For the next two days and nights, the Argylls held out under constant infantry attack and artillery fire, having been promised relief by General Keightley. Airstrikes continued throughout around the clock, but were unable to break the North Korean positions.
On the dawn of June 25th, the beleagured Macforce heard a new sound besides the rattle of machine guns and the terrible song of artillery and mortars - the hum of aircraft engines. 85 RAF Avro Lancasters each dropped two dozen 500lb bombs on the North Korean forces to the north of Hill 32, with their escort of 125 Spitfires and 62 Mosquitoes strafing and rocketing the carefully plotted Red positions to the south and west. As the smoke and dust cleared, the clattering of tanks became clearly audible, as 52 Centurions of the 1st King's Dragoon Guards spearheaded the relief column of the 27th Infantry Brigade, including the 1st Battalion of the Argylls. The Battle of the Nam ended on June 26th, with the British and Commonwealth forces remaining in control of the valley.
Battle of P'ohang Dong
On the northern side of the perimeter, the six divisions of the South Korean Army had been forced back over the course of June to a line north of Taegu to the coast at P'ohang Dong, with a further four divisions of poorly equipped recruits in training around Pusan. The Taebaek mountains provided excellent defensive terrain for most of the line, with the exception of the central valley northeast of Taegu and the narrow coastal strip north of P'ohang Dong. The northern arm was seen as the most vulnerable by both the Allies and the North Koreans.
Over 50,000 North Korean troops organized in four divisions struck towards the town of Yongdok on June 23rd, pushing back the forward elements of the South Korean Capital Division and 4th Division. USAF Mustangs and Invaders operating out of Yongil Airfield provided substantial close air support, with USN aircraft and naval gunfire pounding Red supply lines. The North Korean offensive ground to a halt on the 24th after advancing less than two miles. For the next two weeks, the South Koreans were gradually forced back upon P'ohang Dong, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers for every mile and every hamlet. The US 5th RCT was shifted to Yongil to support the South Koreans.
A heavy armoured attack by 120 Red tanks broke through the stretched defences on July 8th, taking P'ohang Dong by coup de main. American and South Korean troops held Yongil Airfield and the hills to the south of the town thanks to concentrated naval gunfire support from USS Wisconsin and the heavy cruiser USS Des Moines offshore. Further American forces, including a squadron of heavily armoured M-48 main battle tanks, were built up behind the line to support a counteroffensive that was launched on July 14th. Over 200 USN aircraft supported the advance,with the 105mm gunned M-48s destroying dozens of North Korean T-34s and crushing all attempts at resistance by the shattered remnants of the North Korean 12th Division. The front stabilized around Yongdok by July 17th.
Strategic Air Power
The USAF and RAF had built up substantial heavy bomber strength in the Far East by mid July and launched several carpet bombing attacks on North Korean staging areas around the Pusan Perimeter. 95 RAF Lancasters struck around Chinju on July 20th with 3284 500lb and 206 1000lb bombs, devastating several supply dumps and heavy artillery batteries. Forces of 126 and 139 B-29s hit targets around Kumch'on and Andong, smashing troop concentrations and forward logistical headquarters. The impact on North Korean field forces was somewhat less clear. Continued light and medium bomber attacks continued throughout the final week of July.
British and American airships had maintained a constant presence off each coast of Korea, allowing for a full picture of Red aerial sorties and significant intelligence on ground movements. Their aircraft complements launched several air strikes per day on airfields and the North Korean railway network, with the airships themselves coastal striking targets of opportunity with aerial gunfire and rockets. On July 25th, three American and two British airships hit Pyongyang with one of the heaviest raids of the war to date, with significant damage caused by bombs and their heat rays.
The Sea War
In addition to supporting Allied ground troops around the Pusan Perimeter, the American and British Empire naval forces had a variety of other missions. The United States Navy's Task Forces 77 operated in the Sea of Japan, consisting of three fleet carriers (Valley Forge, Philippine Sea and Bonhomme Richard), the light fleet carrier USS Pelelieu and the escort carriers USS Badoeng Strait, USS Sicily, USS Eniwetok, USS Rabaul and USS Saipan. The CVEs (Task Force 77.4) provided close air support from Marine Corsair squadrons for American and South Korean forces, whilst the four larger carriers (Task Force 77.1) operated further out to sea, striking at transportation targets, troop concentrations and strategic targets in addition to their tactical missions.
The battle squadron (TF 77.2) conducted regular shore bombardment missions in support of troops and against coastal targets, provided heavy anti aircraft support to the carrier task forces and acted as a deterrent to any intervention by the Soviet Pacific Fleet. The independent cruiser squadron provided the outer defences of the fleet, shore bombardment and hunted down and destroyed three North Korean destroyers. Destroyers and destroyer escorts screened each carrier task force and conducted aggressive ASW sweeps against the five North Korean submarines operating off the east coast.
The Royal Navy operated in the Korea Strait and Yellow Sea, covering any sorties by the Imperial Chinese Navy and supporting the British and Commonwealth divisions along the southern end of the Pusan Perimeter. The aircraft carriers HMS Hermes, HMS Indefatigable and the Royal Australian Navy's HMAS Sydney controlled the air and sea around the Korea Strait, with the battleships HMS Vanguard, HMS Superb, HMAS Australia and HMNZS New Zealand providing long range gunfire in support of ground forces and heavy air defence to the carriers. The heavy cruisers Ulysses, Royalist and Swiftsure ranged across the Yellow Sea, bombarding the North Korean shore and covering any sorties from their fleet base in the Korea Bay.
Aftermath
The North Korean offensives of June and July had cost them nearly 30,000 casualties and ground their strategic offensive to a halt. August would see further hard fighting all along the Pusan Perimeter, but growing American, South Korean and Allied strength made a North Korean breakthrough unlikely. New North Korean troops did trickle through to the battlefield over the course of July; however, no further divisional sized units could be formed, despite increased Soviet shipments of material and arms.
On the 5th of August 1950, President Truman announced to the world that an atomic explosion had occurred in the Soviet Union at some stage in the last week of July.
The stakes had been raised.
World Reaction: Reinforcements and Mobilization
The reaction of the world to the initial North Korean invasion had been a mixture of shock and befuddlement, with large sections of the public across Europe and the Americas possessing only limited knowledge of the one-time Hermit Kingdom of the Far East. The American-lead reaction to North Korean aggression was very popular with the press and public in the USA, Britain, Canada, Australia and the rest of the Commonwealth, with the lessons of the 1930s of the necessity of standing up to aggression being very fresh in the collective public conscience. The reaction of Europe and South America was only slightly less vehement, as the former was still very much in the process of recovering from the ravages of the Second World War.
There was significant public and political concern in Japan that the North Korean invasion would be but a prelude to a wider Red offensive in the Far East. Subsequent American reinforcement of their positions in the Far East was greeted rapturously as a sign that further war would not strike Japan. There was a most significant boost to the Japanese economy from extensive American military orders of all manner of goods and supplies for the field army in Korea and air and naval forces based in Japan.
The Soviet Union was outwardly supportive of the North Korean action, but inwardly, Stalin was furious that the threat of war had been forced upon him without consultation and well before the USSR had recovered from the war. A wide range of actions, including deposing the North Korean government, were contemplated, before a decision was reached at the Politburo to provide all support needed short of open support and to secure the defences of the Motherland. Red Army forces in Romania and Poland were reinforced, production of T-54 tanks was increased and fighter and submarine patrols were increased to defend against the perceived threat of Anglo-American air and naval attack. Long planned battleships, aircraft carriers and cruisers were laid down as part of Stalin's cherished ambition for an ocean going fleet and programmes for the development of intercontinental missiles and atomic submarines were given renewed priority.
General MacArthur had pressed for further US Army and Marine Corps divisions to allow him to go onto the offensive since early June, with plans initiated for an amphibious landing at Inchon and the 3rd Marine Division leaving San Francisco on June 30th. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff approved recommendations for the deployment of a further corps consisting of the 8th Infantry, 10th Mountain and 23rd Infantry Divisions by early August. The battleships Iowa and New Jersey, the battlecruisers Hawaii and Philippines and the aircraft carriers Boxer and Leyte sailed from Hawaii on July 29th, along with destroyers and cruisers detached from the 3rd Fleet.
Over the latter half of 1950, progressively larger numbers of American reserves were mobilized and activated, with 5 reserve and 4 National Guard divisions alerted for activation by mid 1951. These were required to provide for an adequate strategic reserve in the United States and reinforce key defensive positions in the Atlantic and Pacific in the face of the large commitment of land forces to Japan and Korea. Production of munitions, aircraft and tanks were increased, with many great factories mothballed since 1945 creaking back into life.
Australia and New Zealand had reacted swiftly to the invasion of South Korea, dispatching a joint naval task force headed by two battleships and the brand new aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney to join the Far Eastern Fleet. Mobilization of land forces in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa began in order to expand the Commonwealth Division into a corps sized formation. The 2nd Royal Marine Division and 4th Indian Division arrived in Japan on June 29th, with the former being kept in reserve for the planned amphibious landing at Inchon.
In mid June, the Committee of Imperial Defence recommended to the Cabinet the deployment of a large naval squadron from the Mediterranean, land forces from India and Malaya and air forces from Britain and Egypt to reinforce the position of the Empire in the Far East. After significant debate, the deployment of the 5th Indian division and the 1st Infantry Division was approved, along with a composite RAF group and an RN-RCN task force from the Mediterranean Fleet. A squadron headed by the carriers Ark Royal, Eagle, Victorious and HMCS Aurora and the battleships Hood and Magnificent left Malta on July 24th.
The Soviet atom bomb test of July lead to a veritable seismic reaction, with many in the United States, Britain and Canada seeing the event as the direct precursor to an invasion of Germany and Western Europe. Prime Minister Churchill and Premier de Gaulle flew to Washington to consult with President Truman on August 6th on the ramifications of the Red bomb on the Allied position in Germany and Europe in general.
Intelligence reports on increased Soviet military activity in Eastern Europe and general defensive readiness were seen as alarming signs, but back channel communications from an unknown Politburo member to British SIS assets in Constantinople and USAF reconnaissance flights indicated the true state of affairs. These indications of the nature of Soviet actions were not universally accepted by the American, French or British delegations, but President Truman, after private talks with Prime Minister Churchill, decided that the best course of action would be to confront aggression directly in the Far East and with a united front of preparation in Europe. French dissatisfaction with this decision was to have wide reaching consequences in the future.
The Allied occupation forces in Germany would be increased from their current level of 14 divisions and 1450 aircraft to 25 divisions and 3000 aircraft, whilst the process of German rearmament and negotiations on the restoration of sovereignty, tacitly begun in 1949, would be greatly accelerated in return for a security treaty between Britain, Canada, the Low Countries, France and the United States.
The US Army called up further reserves, increased the monthly intake of conscripts and requested the re-activation of a further 7 divisions (3 USAR, 4 USNG), the US Navy began reactivating large elements of the Reserve Fleet and the US Air Force recalled 120,000 reservists and began reactivating large numbers of mothballed bombers.
The Army began full scale production of the M-48 medium and the M-102 heavy tanks and began development of a long range strategic missile. The USN placed orders for the first production run atomic submarines, the Skate class, initiated a crash programme for the operational fielding of short, medium and long range surface to air missiles and began development programmes for atomic powered aircraft carriers, battleships and cruisers. The USAF increased orders for the B-47 and B-52 strategic bombers and the F-100, F-101 and F-102 supersonic jet fighters. Projects Nike and Atlas (for the development of surface to air missiles and intercontinental ballistic missiles respectively) were given considerably increased priority, with the first operational Nike Ajax batteries fielded in early 1951 rather than 1952.
Britain was similarly shocked by the first Soviet atom bomb test , which had been thought to have been between 3 and 5 years away. The Army Reserve was activated, the monthly National Service intake from the 1932 class was doubled and large elements of the Reserve Fleet were recommissioned.The year of maximum danger was shifted from 1960 to 1957, with a number of important results for defence production. Production of Hunters, Javelins, Vixens, Deltas and Sunbursts for Fighter Command and Canberras, Valiants and Vulcans for Bomber Command was increased and the development of the 'super' fusion bomb, the English Electric supersonic jet fighter and intercontinental ballistic missile were given 'superpriority'. Tentative orders for new atomic submarines, tactical atomic bombs, guided missile cruisers and destroyers were made and operational deployment of the first Floating Fortress was approved for 1952. Production of Centurion and Conqueror tanks was to be doubled and orders for anti-submarine frigates for 1950-1953 were increased from 29 to 56.
France partially mobilized reserve divisions to reinforce the Maginot Line and the French Army in Germany and initiated programmes for the development of long range missiles, jet bombers, supersonic fighters, tanks and new carriers. Its efforts were hampered by the smaller size of the French economy compared to that of Britain, let alone the United States, but were to prove fruitful over the next decade.
It was against the background of these greatly increased global tensions, political machinations and myriad schemes, General MacArthur's final plan for an amphibious landing at Inchon was approved on August 16th 1950.
June 2nd-August 1st 1950
The Pusan Perimeter
The defensive perimeter around the port of Pusan extended in a curve for almost 225 miles from the Korea Strait to the Sea of Japan. The northern arm was covered heavy mountainous terrain, with the west mainly following the line of the Naktong River. The hot Korean summer had scoured the land, leaving little vegetation or potable water. The ongoing drought saw temperature soar to above 110 degrees, adding to the suffering of both sides.
The North Korean Army mustered a force of nearly 190,000 men, comprising fifteen infantry and two armoured divisions supported by powerful armoured elements equipped with T-34 tanks and a strong artillery force. Their logistical support capacity had been stretched to its absolute limit by the speed of their invasion, however, and supply and reinforcement was to prove decidedly difficult in the face of Allied air power.
The Eighth United States Army provided the headquarters for the Allied ground forces, based out of Taegu. The South Korean Army's six divisions manned the northern flank of the Perimeter, with the American 1st Cavalry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 24th Infantry Division and 6th Infantry Division manning the Naktong Front, augmented by two reinforced brigades of the 1st Marine Division and the 5th Regimental Combat Team. The British 3rd Infantry Division and the ad hoc Commonwealth Division held the southernmost end of the line where Naktong turned towards the east. The understrength 7th Infantry and 11th Airborne Divisions were held in operational reserve in Japan.
The port of Pusan was of vital importance to the Allied position in Korea, with supplies and reinforcements pouring in from Japan and the United States and the airfields around the city providing the means for the forward deployment of tactical fighters. Should it have fell, the Allies would have been forced to fight their way ashore in order to return to Korea.
First Battle of the Naktong
The battles around Pusan began on June 2nd with the North Koreans launching a massive artillery barrage at Waegwan, followed by a tank and artillery assault. The US 1st Cavalry Division was sorely pressed, but held their position along the Naktong thanks to heavy air support, five battalions of 105mm field howitzers firing over open sights and the timely arrival of a battalion of M-4E8 Shermans. Infiltration attacks continued over the next 10 days, but US superiority in field artillery and mortars prevented any substantial rupture in the line.
Counteroffensive
The Eighth Army launched a counteroffensive near the southern end of the line at the end of the first week of June, with the US 2nd Infantry Division, the 1st and 2nd US Marine Brigades and the British 3rd Infantry Division pushing towards the Nam River and the Chingu Pass. The Allied forces were heavily supported by airstrikes, naval gunfire from RN battleships offshore and a concentrated artillery bombardment. The attack encountered initial success before being bogged down along the Nam River in the face of strong Red defensive lines and a confused tank battle along the northern edge of the salient. By June 11th, the Marines had been withdrawn to reinforce the heavily pressed Naktong Bulge to the north and the new front line stabilized along the Nam at a cost of almost 1400 Allied casualties.
First Battle of the Naktong Bulge
On June 5th, the North Korean Army launched an offensive on the Naktong Bulge, a westward curve opposite Yongsan 10 miles to the north of the watersmeet of the Naktong and Nam, with two infantry and one armoured division pushing against positions held by the 25th Infantry Division. Over the next week, continual attacks and bombardments were launched against the US held positions to divide their forces and fire support, prior to an assault crossing of the Naktong by the North Korean 4th Infantry Division under the cover of newly arrived Soviet 180mm and 240mm heavy guns. Bitter fighting raged around the key controlling position of Cloverleaf Hill, with gradual North Korean advances being made at a frightful cost.
The provisional 1st US Marine Division, consisting of two brigades with tank and artillery regiments, was moved northward to clear the Reds from Cloverleaf Hill, attacking with heavy mortar and artillery support and concentrated airstrikes from Marine Corsairs on June 15th. After initial strong resistance, the Marines broke the supporting North Korean trench lines and systematically destroyed position after position in a well organized combined arms engagement. By dawn on June 16th, the North Korean forces had been effectively destroyed, with survivors streaming back across the Naktong amid relentless air strikes.
Battle of Taegu
On June 16th, the positions held by the US 1st Cavalry Division around Waegwun and the 25th Infantry Division around Taegu were attacked by five North Korean divisions. The well dug in American troops were amply supplied with mortars, artillery, heavy machine guns and Sherman tanks and encountered comparatively little difficulty in repulsing the initial Red forays. Repeated attempts were made to cross the Naktong in force, with bridgeheads being hammered by USN and USAF airstrikes and both US divisions were able to inflict substantial casualties upon the attackers. One infantry company of the 1st Cavalry was overrun on Hill 303, which was recaptured by US forces after heavy bombardment by artillery and napalm. The bodies of sixty seven American soldiers were found with their hands bound and gunshot wounds to the back, causing considerable outrage in the United States. The Battle of Taegu came to an end on July 6th.
Battle of the Nam River
The British 3rd Division and the Commonwealth Division positions along the Nam were struck by a heavy attack on June 18th by three North Korean divisions. The main line of defence held out against constant bombardment and infiltration attacks over the next three days, with some strongpoints only being saved by calling artillery down on their own positions. All Commonwealth reserve formations were fully committed to the battle along the Nam, which opened up a lightly defended flank along the hill line north of Kosong.
A further North Korean division struck along the Kosong hill line during the night of June 21st, cutting off Macforce, a battlegroup centred around the 2nd Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders under Lt. Colonel David Mackenzie. Macforce was isolated over the course of the 22nd of June, with their only support coming from a battery of long range 6" guns at Masan and carrier aircraft from the RN task force offshore. On the 23rd, the battlegroup came under attack by a full North Korean infantry regiment, eventually being pushed back to Hill 32. For the next two days and nights, the Argylls held out under constant infantry attack and artillery fire, having been promised relief by General Keightley. Airstrikes continued throughout around the clock, but were unable to break the North Korean positions.
On the dawn of June 25th, the beleagured Macforce heard a new sound besides the rattle of machine guns and the terrible song of artillery and mortars - the hum of aircraft engines. 85 RAF Avro Lancasters each dropped two dozen 500lb bombs on the North Korean forces to the north of Hill 32, with their escort of 125 Spitfires and 62 Mosquitoes strafing and rocketing the carefully plotted Red positions to the south and west. As the smoke and dust cleared, the clattering of tanks became clearly audible, as 52 Centurions of the 1st King's Dragoon Guards spearheaded the relief column of the 27th Infantry Brigade, including the 1st Battalion of the Argylls. The Battle of the Nam ended on June 26th, with the British and Commonwealth forces remaining in control of the valley.
Battle of P'ohang Dong
On the northern side of the perimeter, the six divisions of the South Korean Army had been forced back over the course of June to a line north of Taegu to the coast at P'ohang Dong, with a further four divisions of poorly equipped recruits in training around Pusan. The Taebaek mountains provided excellent defensive terrain for most of the line, with the exception of the central valley northeast of Taegu and the narrow coastal strip north of P'ohang Dong. The northern arm was seen as the most vulnerable by both the Allies and the North Koreans.
Over 50,000 North Korean troops organized in four divisions struck towards the town of Yongdok on June 23rd, pushing back the forward elements of the South Korean Capital Division and 4th Division. USAF Mustangs and Invaders operating out of Yongil Airfield provided substantial close air support, with USN aircraft and naval gunfire pounding Red supply lines. The North Korean offensive ground to a halt on the 24th after advancing less than two miles. For the next two weeks, the South Koreans were gradually forced back upon P'ohang Dong, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers for every mile and every hamlet. The US 5th RCT was shifted to Yongil to support the South Koreans.
A heavy armoured attack by 120 Red tanks broke through the stretched defences on July 8th, taking P'ohang Dong by coup de main. American and South Korean troops held Yongil Airfield and the hills to the south of the town thanks to concentrated naval gunfire support from USS Wisconsin and the heavy cruiser USS Des Moines offshore. Further American forces, including a squadron of heavily armoured M-48 main battle tanks, were built up behind the line to support a counteroffensive that was launched on July 14th. Over 200 USN aircraft supported the advance,with the 105mm gunned M-48s destroying dozens of North Korean T-34s and crushing all attempts at resistance by the shattered remnants of the North Korean 12th Division. The front stabilized around Yongdok by July 17th.
Strategic Air Power
The USAF and RAF had built up substantial heavy bomber strength in the Far East by mid July and launched several carpet bombing attacks on North Korean staging areas around the Pusan Perimeter. 95 RAF Lancasters struck around Chinju on July 20th with 3284 500lb and 206 1000lb bombs, devastating several supply dumps and heavy artillery batteries. Forces of 126 and 139 B-29s hit targets around Kumch'on and Andong, smashing troop concentrations and forward logistical headquarters. The impact on North Korean field forces was somewhat less clear. Continued light and medium bomber attacks continued throughout the final week of July.
British and American airships had maintained a constant presence off each coast of Korea, allowing for a full picture of Red aerial sorties and significant intelligence on ground movements. Their aircraft complements launched several air strikes per day on airfields and the North Korean railway network, with the airships themselves coastal striking targets of opportunity with aerial gunfire and rockets. On July 25th, three American and two British airships hit Pyongyang with one of the heaviest raids of the war to date, with significant damage caused by bombs and their heat rays.
The Sea War
In addition to supporting Allied ground troops around the Pusan Perimeter, the American and British Empire naval forces had a variety of other missions. The United States Navy's Task Forces 77 operated in the Sea of Japan, consisting of three fleet carriers (Valley Forge, Philippine Sea and Bonhomme Richard), the light fleet carrier USS Pelelieu and the escort carriers USS Badoeng Strait, USS Sicily, USS Eniwetok, USS Rabaul and USS Saipan. The CVEs (Task Force 77.4) provided close air support from Marine Corsair squadrons for American and South Korean forces, whilst the four larger carriers (Task Force 77.1) operated further out to sea, striking at transportation targets, troop concentrations and strategic targets in addition to their tactical missions.
The battle squadron (TF 77.2) conducted regular shore bombardment missions in support of troops and against coastal targets, provided heavy anti aircraft support to the carrier task forces and acted as a deterrent to any intervention by the Soviet Pacific Fleet. The independent cruiser squadron provided the outer defences of the fleet, shore bombardment and hunted down and destroyed three North Korean destroyers. Destroyers and destroyer escorts screened each carrier task force and conducted aggressive ASW sweeps against the five North Korean submarines operating off the east coast.
The Royal Navy operated in the Korea Strait and Yellow Sea, covering any sorties by the Imperial Chinese Navy and supporting the British and Commonwealth divisions along the southern end of the Pusan Perimeter. The aircraft carriers HMS Hermes, HMS Indefatigable and the Royal Australian Navy's HMAS Sydney controlled the air and sea around the Korea Strait, with the battleships HMS Vanguard, HMS Superb, HMAS Australia and HMNZS New Zealand providing long range gunfire in support of ground forces and heavy air defence to the carriers. The heavy cruisers Ulysses, Royalist and Swiftsure ranged across the Yellow Sea, bombarding the North Korean shore and covering any sorties from their fleet base in the Korea Bay.
Aftermath
The North Korean offensives of June and July had cost them nearly 30,000 casualties and ground their strategic offensive to a halt. August would see further hard fighting all along the Pusan Perimeter, but growing American, South Korean and Allied strength made a North Korean breakthrough unlikely. New North Korean troops did trickle through to the battlefield over the course of July; however, no further divisional sized units could be formed, despite increased Soviet shipments of material and arms.
On the 5th of August 1950, President Truman announced to the world that an atomic explosion had occurred in the Soviet Union at some stage in the last week of July.
The stakes had been raised.
World Reaction: Reinforcements and Mobilization
The reaction of the world to the initial North Korean invasion had been a mixture of shock and befuddlement, with large sections of the public across Europe and the Americas possessing only limited knowledge of the one-time Hermit Kingdom of the Far East. The American-lead reaction to North Korean aggression was very popular with the press and public in the USA, Britain, Canada, Australia and the rest of the Commonwealth, with the lessons of the 1930s of the necessity of standing up to aggression being very fresh in the collective public conscience. The reaction of Europe and South America was only slightly less vehement, as the former was still very much in the process of recovering from the ravages of the Second World War.
There was significant public and political concern in Japan that the North Korean invasion would be but a prelude to a wider Red offensive in the Far East. Subsequent American reinforcement of their positions in the Far East was greeted rapturously as a sign that further war would not strike Japan. There was a most significant boost to the Japanese economy from extensive American military orders of all manner of goods and supplies for the field army in Korea and air and naval forces based in Japan.
The Soviet Union was outwardly supportive of the North Korean action, but inwardly, Stalin was furious that the threat of war had been forced upon him without consultation and well before the USSR had recovered from the war. A wide range of actions, including deposing the North Korean government, were contemplated, before a decision was reached at the Politburo to provide all support needed short of open support and to secure the defences of the Motherland. Red Army forces in Romania and Poland were reinforced, production of T-54 tanks was increased and fighter and submarine patrols were increased to defend against the perceived threat of Anglo-American air and naval attack. Long planned battleships, aircraft carriers and cruisers were laid down as part of Stalin's cherished ambition for an ocean going fleet and programmes for the development of intercontinental missiles and atomic submarines were given renewed priority.
General MacArthur had pressed for further US Army and Marine Corps divisions to allow him to go onto the offensive since early June, with plans initiated for an amphibious landing at Inchon and the 3rd Marine Division leaving San Francisco on June 30th. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff approved recommendations for the deployment of a further corps consisting of the 8th Infantry, 10th Mountain and 23rd Infantry Divisions by early August. The battleships Iowa and New Jersey, the battlecruisers Hawaii and Philippines and the aircraft carriers Boxer and Leyte sailed from Hawaii on July 29th, along with destroyers and cruisers detached from the 3rd Fleet.
Over the latter half of 1950, progressively larger numbers of American reserves were mobilized and activated, with 5 reserve and 4 National Guard divisions alerted for activation by mid 1951. These were required to provide for an adequate strategic reserve in the United States and reinforce key defensive positions in the Atlantic and Pacific in the face of the large commitment of land forces to Japan and Korea. Production of munitions, aircraft and tanks were increased, with many great factories mothballed since 1945 creaking back into life.
Australia and New Zealand had reacted swiftly to the invasion of South Korea, dispatching a joint naval task force headed by two battleships and the brand new aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney to join the Far Eastern Fleet. Mobilization of land forces in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa began in order to expand the Commonwealth Division into a corps sized formation. The 2nd Royal Marine Division and 4th Indian Division arrived in Japan on June 29th, with the former being kept in reserve for the planned amphibious landing at Inchon.
In mid June, the Committee of Imperial Defence recommended to the Cabinet the deployment of a large naval squadron from the Mediterranean, land forces from India and Malaya and air forces from Britain and Egypt to reinforce the position of the Empire in the Far East. After significant debate, the deployment of the 5th Indian division and the 1st Infantry Division was approved, along with a composite RAF group and an RN-RCN task force from the Mediterranean Fleet. A squadron headed by the carriers Ark Royal, Eagle, Victorious and HMCS Aurora and the battleships Hood and Magnificent left Malta on July 24th.
The Soviet atom bomb test of July lead to a veritable seismic reaction, with many in the United States, Britain and Canada seeing the event as the direct precursor to an invasion of Germany and Western Europe. Prime Minister Churchill and Premier de Gaulle flew to Washington to consult with President Truman on August 6th on the ramifications of the Red bomb on the Allied position in Germany and Europe in general.
Intelligence reports on increased Soviet military activity in Eastern Europe and general defensive readiness were seen as alarming signs, but back channel communications from an unknown Politburo member to British SIS assets in Constantinople and USAF reconnaissance flights indicated the true state of affairs. These indications of the nature of Soviet actions were not universally accepted by the American, French or British delegations, but President Truman, after private talks with Prime Minister Churchill, decided that the best course of action would be to confront aggression directly in the Far East and with a united front of preparation in Europe. French dissatisfaction with this decision was to have wide reaching consequences in the future.
The Allied occupation forces in Germany would be increased from their current level of 14 divisions and 1450 aircraft to 25 divisions and 3000 aircraft, whilst the process of German rearmament and negotiations on the restoration of sovereignty, tacitly begun in 1949, would be greatly accelerated in return for a security treaty between Britain, Canada, the Low Countries, France and the United States.
The US Army called up further reserves, increased the monthly intake of conscripts and requested the re-activation of a further 7 divisions (3 USAR, 4 USNG), the US Navy began reactivating large elements of the Reserve Fleet and the US Air Force recalled 120,000 reservists and began reactivating large numbers of mothballed bombers.
The Army began full scale production of the M-48 medium and the M-102 heavy tanks and began development of a long range strategic missile. The USN placed orders for the first production run atomic submarines, the Skate class, initiated a crash programme for the operational fielding of short, medium and long range surface to air missiles and began development programmes for atomic powered aircraft carriers, battleships and cruisers. The USAF increased orders for the B-47 and B-52 strategic bombers and the F-100, F-101 and F-102 supersonic jet fighters. Projects Nike and Atlas (for the development of surface to air missiles and intercontinental ballistic missiles respectively) were given considerably increased priority, with the first operational Nike Ajax batteries fielded in early 1951 rather than 1952.
Britain was similarly shocked by the first Soviet atom bomb test , which had been thought to have been between 3 and 5 years away. The Army Reserve was activated, the monthly National Service intake from the 1932 class was doubled and large elements of the Reserve Fleet were recommissioned.The year of maximum danger was shifted from 1960 to 1957, with a number of important results for defence production. Production of Hunters, Javelins, Vixens, Deltas and Sunbursts for Fighter Command and Canberras, Valiants and Vulcans for Bomber Command was increased and the development of the 'super' fusion bomb, the English Electric supersonic jet fighter and intercontinental ballistic missile were given 'superpriority'. Tentative orders for new atomic submarines, tactical atomic bombs, guided missile cruisers and destroyers were made and operational deployment of the first Floating Fortress was approved for 1952. Production of Centurion and Conqueror tanks was to be doubled and orders for anti-submarine frigates for 1950-1953 were increased from 29 to 56.
France partially mobilized reserve divisions to reinforce the Maginot Line and the French Army in Germany and initiated programmes for the development of long range missiles, jet bombers, supersonic fighters, tanks and new carriers. Its efforts were hampered by the smaller size of the French economy compared to that of Britain, let alone the United States, but were to prove fruitful over the next decade.
It was against the background of these greatly increased global tensions, political machinations and myriad schemes, General MacArthur's final plan for an amphibious landing at Inchon was approved on August 16th 1950.
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