2001: A Space-Time Odyssey

34 - US Space activity in 1975

Project DELOS
The new collaboration of the USAF and NASA began in the early 1970s.
One area of cooperation was the joint-venture Space Shuttle, the others being the Space Tug and Nuclear Shuttle.
After the USAF lost the MOL program in 1968, it now had a second chance for manned mission into orbit.
Therefore the USAF began co-financing the Shuttle, Space Tug and NERVA engine,
Which was ironic given that Nuclear thermal rockets were originally a USAF project transfert to NASA.
The next joint-venture was the project DELOS,
A technology development program for NASA's Odyssey and the USAF's Military Space program.
Its goal was to test hardware needed for the Space Tug and Nuclear Shuttle.
The first series of DELOS satellite were testing advanced cryogenic propellants tanks, proposed by US aerospace industry,
the satellites used Centaur tanks wrapped in Super-insolation and sensors.
In addition new propellants were tested besides hydrogen and oxygen such as methane, ammonia, fluorine
and FLOX a mixture of oxygen and fluorine.

From 1975 a series of Titan IIICs brought the first Delos satellites into orbit to test long time storage of cryogenic propellants in orbit.
Oddly, fluorine went quite well, until the corrosive element found a weak spot,
corroding it’s Tank degassing valve until it perforated and entire tank contents dispersed into the vacuum.
This led to the loss of Delos 2. Next to follow was Delos 3, which tested a mixture of oxygen and fluorine and how it separated over time. Again the fluorine also corroded the weak spot in its tank.
The results of Delos 1 showed cryogenic hydrogen and oxygen could store for up to 310 days,
Adequate for operating space tugs and nuclear Shuttle around Earth and Moon, but not for Mars missions.
NASA had to send improved cryogenic propellants tanks into orbit to test longer durations.

On Caldwell Johnson behalf, other Delos satellite tested remote manipulator demonstrators for future Tugs.
One of models tested was built by the small Canadian firm DSMA Atcon.
The target for those Delos satellites was the hibernating Skylab-5 station
Also tested were the Reaction Control Systems with new propellants like the highly toxic CIF5/MHF-5*
The last Delos satellites were prototypes of the Tug Propulsion Module and a huge hydrogen fuel tank for the RIFT-2 mission.

*= CIF5 is Chlorine pentafluoride, MHF-5 is 55% Monomethylhydrazine, 26% Hydrazine and 19% Hydrazinium Nitrate,
beliefe me very very toxic stuff !

NASA
Bush and Mueller hat to solved a series of problems, such as the rising cost of Odyssey,
They cut the last three Apollo missions for several reasons, increasing Solar activity, budgetary reasons and logistics.
The Saturn-derived Earth-to-Orbit Shuttle and the Saturn VC Program had consume more money than expected.
Even with a budget that had steadily grown since 1967, something had to give which ended up being the last Apollo missions and
the "Planetary Grand Tour" (Replace by a smaller effort known as Pathfinder).
Also Launch Complex 39 had to be modified for the new systems, at least 24 months were needed
to replace the ten year old hardware for the new optimized for Saturn Shuttle and VC.
The three remaining Saturn VBs were mothballed for future use, while the Lunar Modules went to Museums,
The CSM were also mothballed for use on Skylab if needed.
From here the Odyssey orbital architecture would have to take over in 1980s with missions utilising the Nuclear Shuttle and Space Tugs.
also Facing a new dilemma, their management system that Mueller had envisioned to make the Apollo program operative,
began to become more a bureaucratic Moloch, that began eating into their money, needed for Odyssey. So Bush had to make reforms.
Other issues were lack employment of Women, Afro Americans and Asian Americans and cases of open racism in NASA.
And the "Astronaut scandal" about Administrator Bush, son George Walker Bush,
Who as Air National Guard pilot without right qualification became a NASA astronaut !
While Democrats and media screams "nepotism", was the matter more banal, those responsible were from JSC Management,
They wanted to express gratitude toward Administrator Bush, by selecting his Son as Astronaut and he barely qualified the tests.

Apollo 21
The last Apollo mission originally labeled Apollo 20 was originally planned to be last manned mission to moon for the Apollo program,
As planned in 1966, even though much had change since then.
Almost cancelled, then rescued by additional founding, it’s target was north of Crater Tycho.
The Saturn VB was the right tool to bring Apollo spacecrafts in higher inclination orbit around moon



The crew selected: Stuart Roosa, Jack R. Lousma, Paul J.Weitz.
For Rossa, a veteran of Apollo 14 mission, this was second landing to moon and this time as Mission commander not as CSM Pilot.
On April 20, the first manned Saturn VB launch CSM Discovery and LM Ares
(named after spaceships from Kubrick movie 2001: A Space Odyssey)
Stuart Roosa and Jack R Lousma landed the LM Ares near Surveyor 7 early in the morning.
The first EVA was a simple standup through the LM top hatch to take panoramic pictures.
Then the crew left the LM and unpacked the Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly, Lunar Rover and ALSEP



After the work was done the crew returned to the LM for their nightly rest.
The next day the second EVA went 2 km north of the LM with 5 stops to collect samples. After 6 hours the Crew returned to the LM
The third EVA went 4 km south east of the LM with 5 stops
The fourth EVA went to east for 2 km with 5 stops,
the last one at Surveyor 7 where Roosa and Lousma dismantled parts of probe and took 10 kg on hardware with them,
Bringing pieces from Surveyor 7 and over 100 kg of Lunar samples back to Earth.
Those sample later proved that Tycho was formed by fragments of the Baptista Asteroid Family
The 6 years of exposure on Lunar surface was clear to see on the Surveyor 7 pieces.
However one result of SIM-bay Experiment was a enigma !

The Neutron Spectrometer, showed unusual results in the Southern and Northern higher latitudes of Moon.
In the beginning the geologist could’t interpret the results, after testing the Neutron Spectrometer for several minerals,
they found it: Hydroxide !
This news hit like bombshell it was the key evidence of water on the Moon,
Suspected already as the Apollo 14 ALSEP had detected a burst of water vapor,
But this show there were large deposits at higher latitude on the moon, possibly even ice at the lunar poles ?
Despite this some scientists still disputed the findings, arguing that it could have been due,
to chemical reaction of solar Hydrogen with oxygen in the lunar regolith.
but for moment a open question what could be a answer in 1980s with Odyssey program lunar missions.

Viking 1 & 2
August and September two Saturn ICs sent the Viking Orbiter/Landers on route to Mars. They took a full year to arrive.
Meanwhile the Soviets had a Lunar rocket on the launch pad
At first the CIA believed it was another Soyuz mission to Moon, until NASA engineers noticed the lack of a launch escape tower
and realised how close they were to a launch window for Mars and there fears were confirmed as this Luna-F blasted off to Mars!
A calculation show that payload was 20 metric tons, what behemoth had the Soviets send to Mars ?!

Pioneer 12
on June 27, Pioneer 12 arrive at Jupiter, it catapult the Probe 80° over ecliptic toward the sun.


A look over Iron Curtain
In the meantime the CIA noticed something on their satellite reconnaissance photos.
Since 1973 the Soviet had begun making modifications on their launch complex known as Site 250, 240 and 200.
That’s where the Soviet launch complex for the Nositjel family was.
The photos showed over time that installation for rocket fuel were modified,
Then in 1974 work started on a new installation on to the right launchpads.
NASA engineers looking at these photos believed they were storage and fueling facilities for liquid hydrogen.
In 1975 their evaluation were confirmed as very different Soyuz and Proton rockets rolled out of the large MIK-112 building
Instead of their typical conical design, their upper stages were largely cylindrical in form,
With much bigger payload fairings than had the used before.
They conduct a series of test launches were one of the new protons brought test satellites into Geostationary Orbit over the USSR.
TASS announced the introduction of the new advanced Proton-F-MV with liquid hydrogen upper stages.
Later photos revealed a new Lunar rocket with a huge cylindrical upper stage and fairing.
What had once been considered a Soviet Sledge Hammer attempt at matching the Saturn V
had now become a serious competitor to the Saturn V as obvious design advances and modifications were being made.

Another activity which also puzzle the CIA was that the Soviets had launch Cosmos 672 satellite into a High Earth orbit,
an orbit on the edge of the Earth-Moon system
The satellite was had an unusually powerful transmitter for it’s mission near Earth,
It made frequently Flybys of Moon (while not entering orbit around it) and Earth before transmitting it's data,
Which the the CIA could then translate into reconnaissance information.
In addition pictures from the Moon and Earth, data from a Geiger counter, Micrometeoroid detector, Magnetometer, several spectrometers and a Plasma-Analyser was include.
Also peculiar was the fact the satellite was very communicative with ground control, especially before the fly-by sections of it’s mission.
This was unusual because usually Soviet space-crafts were highly automated.
Also mysterious was the mission of this satellite, because they had send other smaller satellite with same experiments years ago,
So what was the real purpose of this satellite?

Another event surprised the CIA and NASA as Soviet rolled out a Luna-F rocket to launch pad
Consider as another Soyuz mission, until someone in CIA notice that this Luna-F had no Launch Escape Tower and
Was made ready for launch window to Mars, and launch during Viking 1&2 launch to Mars,
With payload capacity of Lunar Rocket what behemoth have Soviet launch to Mars ?!

Another activity of Soviets worry the Pentagon deeply. The Red Army conducted a series of Test with New ICBM
The ICBM codename by NATO as SS-9 Scarp hit is target in Siberia using trajectory over south pole !
This alert the Pentagon about new generation of Soviet ICBM, able to attack the USA from the South.
Also was distressing was, that one SS-9 Scarp launch a Satellite, that remain in orbit for while,
Then reenter and impacted in ICBM target site in Siberia!
Showing clearly that Soviet used SALT I treaty loopholes for install orbital strike system on ICBM.

Where did they do this test, did they do a North Korea style of test inside a mountain.

36 - 1976 Space Probe Program

In the summer of 1976, the Viking 1 & 2 space probes entered Mars' orbit and before transmitting an unfortunate surprise back to Earth,
Their landing sites which had been previously photographed by Mariner 8 were too rough for landing.

JLP needed 10 days to find new landing sites, much to anger of the Americans as their Soviet competitor probe managed to enter orbit,
around Mars using new technique called aerobraking.
Using a huge heat shield to enter partially into Mars' atmosphere and reduce speed,
The spacecraft then separated the communication satellite Mars 9 into Orbit before the rest descended for landing.
After landing successfully on the surface in Meridiani Planum, the Mars 8 then revealed it's Mars rover!
The picture this Marskhod transmitted revealed a bad surprise for the scientists involved,
It had landed on flattest most scientifically uninteresting surfaces ever seen in solar system.
The engineers celebrated, as it meant fewer rocks to collide with, less send to clog up the wheels and
A far safer terrain for the vehicle to traverse. In a single day Marskhod would easily be able to drive 400 meters.

But on Sol 13, after traveling over 5 kilometers and Marskhod attempted to cross a sand dune and got stuck.
All attempt by the ground crew to restore the vehicle's mobility failed. From then on Marskhod became a stationary science station.
In mean the time Viking 1 managed successfully land on Chryse Planitia on July 20th, followed by Viking 2 in Utopia Planitia on September 9th.
Although the Viking landers revolutionized the the scientific community's view of Mars while leaving the question of whether life existed unanswered.
While no evidence of life (or even organic compounds) was discovered on the surface, the orbiters found strong evidence of liquid water in Mars' ancient past.
In 1980 the two Viking Orbiter shut down after depletion of their attitude control fuel, followed Viking 2 lander do to battery failure.
Viking 1 continued for another two years but failed do to a faulty software update in 1982. Mars 9 continued transmitting data until 1981.
while Marskhod-1, established a new record for the lifespan of soviet hardware by lasting 8 years (until 1983).


NASA internal
George Bush resigned as Deputy Administrator of NASA. His replacement was Alan M. Lovelace.
Bush wanted after eight years, return into politic of Capitol Hill.

JLP got it's new Director Bruce Murray who set new standards in JPL by hiring female engineers.
But Murray was also ambitious, he wanted high tech missions for the 1980s like a Comet Halley Orbiter using NERVA engine !
This was something that NASA refused due to the extreme cost of such mission. With significant resources being devoted to the manned lunar and earth orbital programs,
advanced robotic programs were being pushed to the side.
While a simple flyby mission was rejected by Murray as unsatisfactory, in an unexpected turn of events the Ames Research Center which had been limited in scope to non-orbiting,
non-planetary missions was selected to fly the Halley comet flyby mission instead.

China Spaceflight Activity
in 1976 China made surprise by revealing new launch rocket and new manned Hóng Xing spacecraft!
it feature new crew module in form of a lifting body connected was to Laboratory and Service module
This Design is similar to 1961 Apollo Proposal from Martin corp.
After Unmanned tests launches China, it first manned mission for 14 day test with 3 men on board in 1976.

ELGO
In the mean time the US State Department was having serious issues with German/French Company ELGO GmbH,
A company attempting to secure launch sites near the equator for their low cost launch vehicles.
In their efforts to do this they approaching the governments of Algeria, Libya, Central African Empire, Zaire and Brazil,
which in turn provoked international outrage !
France intervened after the Germans discussed with the Algerian government about the possibility of using old Diamond launch site near Hammaguir.
Several African nations were protested that ELGO could give dictatorships like Gaddafi, Bokasa or Mobutu the possibility to build military rockets.
After these failed attempts, ELGO tried make a deal with the military dictatorship of Brazil for the use of island of Fernando de Noronha.
The US State Department in turn intervened to prevent the Brazilian junta from get rocket technology in there hands as,
it was an open secret that Brazil's generals wanted the atomic bomb alongside it's associated ballistic missile technology!
The last thing the US needed was a Brazil with the capacity to launch their nukes on ICBMs derived from a ELGO's rockets.
After some talks with the West German and French Government a compromise was reached.
France offered ELGO GmbH the CNES launch site in French Guiana, while the West Germans made sure that ELGO did Not sell rocket technology to dictatorships and rogue states.
Leaving the market open for China to do just that...

1977 Space Probe Program

Pioneer 12
Having flung far from the ecliptic plane of the planets by the massive gravity of Jupiter, Pioneer-12 proceeded to begin it's primary science mission of solar observation
(although secondary space physics experiments were also conducted).
Between 1977 and 1978 Pioneer 12 explored both the southern and northern polar regions of the Sun for the first time in history,
providing humanity with the first view of our sun from a completely different perspective.

The Grand Tour
Pathfinder 1 & 2 were launched in September and August 1977.
NASA's original Grand Tour program of four large highly capable spacecraft would have explored the outer solar system, flying past Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto multiple times with numerous specialized instruments.
Unfortunately, Congress still had limits as to how far they were willing to go with the space program, especially with the economic stagflation of the 1970s setting in.

Thankfully, researchers at JPL managed to put in place a budget version of the Grand Tour Probes, initially called the Mariner Jupiter-Saturn, later designated Pathfinder.
In addition to these scaled down probes, it was also hoped that a third probe specifically for the exploration of Uranus could be funded.
However this was not forthcoming, so, in hopes the probes would last long enough,
Pathfinder 1 & 2 were launched by Saturn ICs on trajectories which would take them right past the planets beyond Saturn
(Pluto for Pathfinder 1, Uranus & Neptune for Pathfinder 2). Eager to be able to beat the Soviets to other planets without breaking the bank, it was approved by Congress.

In addition, in the knowledge that these spacecraft were on interstellar escape trajectories which would take them nearby other stellar systems in several tens of thousands of years
(and that they would likely last for billions of years in total), Carl Sagan included message for any extraterrestrial who happened upon the spacecraft on the exteriors of both Pathfinder 1 & 2.
Sagan had done this previously with Pioneer 10 & 11, however unlike Pioneer 10 & 11, which included pictographs engraved on a metal plack,
Pathfinder 1 & 2 contained a golden record disc with 115 analog pictures (mostly of sights on Earth but also from around the solar system), greetings in 55 human languages from across the earth,
50 different sounds from around the world, 90 minutes of music from many different cultures (including one non-human whale song).
These records became symbols of mankind's determination to communicate with others outside the Solar systems, even if it took 40,000 years the until probes even approached another star system.

There was significant debate among the scientific community whether Pathfinder 1 should perform a close flyby of Titan
or forgo the close flyby opportunity to Titan and instead chart a trajectory that would take Pathfinder 1 past Pluto years later.
In 1978 the decision was made to fly past Pluto & Charon, as the scientific community understood that Pioneer 11 and a followup Saturn orbiter would be able to explore Titan.

In the spring and summer of 1979, Pathfinder 1 & 2 arrived at Jupiter. Ironically however, Jupiter itself wasn't the main focus of the excitement that followed.
Instead, discovery after discovery rushed in about the moons of Jupiter.
Spectacular Io had massive volcanoes of sulfur which seemed to erupt frequently, spreading sulfur gas out in kilometer high geysers, Europe, completely covered in kilometres of thick ice,
had strange lines running across the surface indicative of a subsurface ocean and geothermal heating, Speculation of life followed.

Just month later, on September 2nd 1979, Pioneer 11 flew past Saturn and ground control manage a close fly by at moon Titan,
but the hope to see surface feature were disappointing. A thick layer of orange clouds obscured the surface,
similar to how Venus' thick cloud layer conceals it's surface.
Atmospheric spectroscopy could helped scientists determine the rough atmospheric composition and speculation about a liquid methane ocean abound,
but untill cloud-penetrating radar or a surface probe could take a closer look, speculation would have to do.

The Pathfinder 1 & 2 followed Pioneer 11, encounter Saturn in November of 1980 and August of 1981, sending back sensational picture of Saturn's complex system of rings,
the icy yet multi-color surface of moons such as Iapetus, the icy cracked surface of Enceladus, and dozens of smaller potatoes shaped moons in orbit around Saturn.
From there the probes went their separate way, Pathfinder 1 went onward to Pluto,
While Pathfinder 2 swung around toward the seventh planet in the Solar system, Uranus.

In January of 1986, Pathfinder 2 made it's flyby encounter of Uranus, discovering a strange new worlds for scientists back at JPL to study. 
However even months before the de jure flyby itself, monumental discoveries were already being made.
In October 1985 beginning Pathfinder 1 of the long-range Pluto survey mission, scientists were surprised to find that in addition to the large circular moon of Charon, Pluto also had four additional small potatoe shaped moons.
Even more surprising was the discovery that Pluto is a dynamic, geologically active planet and not merely a frozen ball of rock.
One stunning surface feature on Pluto, labeled as "Valentine Heart" (both for it's shape and it's discovery date; February 14, 1986),
was revealed to be a frozen sea! Scientists even speculated that a massive, unbelievably deep subsurface ocean existed beneath a thick layer of ice.



Finally the grand tour of the outer solar system ended with Pathfinder 2's flyby of Neptune in August of 1989.
Again the probe made astounding findings, discovering that the planet had the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System and a massive storm dubbed the "Great Dark spot"
(similar to Jupiter's "Great Red Spot").
Triton was found to be somewhat less interesting, with a significantly thinner atmosphere than previously believed.

After this final planetary encounter Pathfinder 1 & 2, having outperformed all expectations, began their long interstellar journeys.
In 1990, Pathfinder 1 turned back and took one final photograph.
This "Family Portrait" of the solar system showed the Sun, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The imagine of the Earth, now just a point of pale blue light surrounded by darkness became world famous.
Dubbed "The Pale Blue Dot", it inspired a poem by Carl Sagan of the same name.
As the twin spacecraft pushed further and further away from the Sun, they each took turns sending data on the solar winds, early signs of the interstellar medium of gas & dust, temperature readings, long-range telemetry etc.
In 2013, Pathfinder 1 was first human Space craft entering Interstellar Space.

Finally in 2030 the Pathfinders went silent, their radioisotope thermoelectric generators exhausted and unable to provide the power requirements for even basic infrequent telemetry blips
(little reminders the probes were still functioning).
Pathfinder 1 & 2 will continue to journey onwards for billions of years to come.

38 - The Space Shuttle: Research and Development

Special thanks to Rob Davidoff helping in design the Saturn Shuttle


In the mid 1960s NASA started studies looking at the feasibility of reusable spacecraft to supply a future Space Station.
Throughout 1968 and 1969, there were dozens of studies made under Phase A for a reusable, winged "Earth to Orbit Shuttle",
Which would serve as a component in the Space Transportation System approved by the Nixon administration.
NASA pushed for the most advance Shuttle design, a concept for two winged stages with Hydrogen/Oxygen propellant and yet to be devised high-pressure engines.
But the Office Management and Budget and US House of Representatives reacted with hostility against Odyssey
And the new Shuttle program, especially Senator Walter Mondale, who led the charge.
Even the head of US federal budget Caspar Weinberger tried to stop the program,
But Nixon, reeling from the aftermath of America's defeat in the Moon race, refused.
The USAF asked NASA about the possibility of a Joint venture for Shuttle Program, which would include launch of military hardware to space,
cost-sharing measures between the two agencies and achievement of both civil & military space objectives.
This helped pushed the program over the edge into passing through Congress.
However, the USAF made some hard demands on vehicle design: Payload weight and size doubled alongside new aerodynamic modification to allow the returning orbiter to fit USAF cross range requirements.
The Air Force also pushed for use of the Pratt & Withney XLR-129 high pressure engines prototype, instead of Rocketdyne's yet to be built XRS-25 engines.
In October 1971 the Flax Committee Report was publish, which was highly skeptical as to whether the Shuttle program
could have been achievable or practical especially given the non-existence of high pressure hydrogen/oxygen engines.
The next blow to the program was Caspar Weinberger's cuts to the budget on High pressure engines development.

NASA realised their initial Shuttle Design would never fly. In response, Boeing came up with clever solution.
They had studied back 1962 the possibility of reusing a modified Saturn V, which in turn led to a Saturn INT-22 Flyback design.
In the initial design, a modified Saturn V first stage with wings, jet engines, landing gear and crew cockpit would carry an expendable second stage based on the S-IVB for launch to orbit, but by utilising F-1A engines,
This flyback state could also be used as a booster to launch the orbiter.
This allowed for a significant reduction in development time, development costs and even the individual launch costs as the existing infrastructure of Launch Complex 39 could be used with little modification.
For the Orbiter a modified R134C proposal by General Dynamics/Rockwell with internal Hydrogen/Oxygen tanks with five J-2S engines.
General Dynamics proposed a modular metal heat shield which would be easy to detach from orbiter and take in for maintenance and repair while another would be put on the Orbiter.
Another new feature of the Orbiter was an airframe which used significant amounts of Titanium to reduce the empty mass and provide for improved shielding from reentry heat.
To complement the low-cost, low-payload, high-crew capabilities of the Earth-to-Orbit Shuttle,
Boeing and Rockwell further proposed a low-cost two stage version of the Saturn Vb for unmanned heavy-lift cargo launches.
Internally designated the Saturn INT-21, it was later given the official title of Saturn Vc.
Other upgrades included all-new digital computers at Launch Complex 39 to allow for faster check-thru and shorter countdown times for Saturn V-derived vehicles.
Repairs, checkup, assembly, roll-out and launch were reduce from the 135 days to just 43 days (compared to of the Saturn Vb).
Boeing fought hard and won on another matter: Saturn INT-22, the original proposal would also fly, covering medium Cargo.
So in 1972 NASA took Boeing/General Dynamics/Rockwell as the prime contractors for the Space Shuttle.
in mean time the term "Earth-to-Orbit Shuttle" and the "Orbit-Orbit Shuttles" were replaced by Space Shuttle, Space Tug and Nuclear Ferry.


The Saturn Vc was different beast, two stage launcher for Cargo into Orbit, design for low cost construction and launch.
It was not more the majestic white Rocket, but look dirty orange, do spray-on foam insulation (also unpainted Saturn V save 1000 lb.)
Biggest changes were internal, the Vc used sub-cooled propellants, loading 716502 lb. (325 metric tons) more into same Tank volume.
With use of F-1A and J-2S engines the Vc could launch 285326 lb. (129 metric tons) into 125 miles (200 km) orbit at 28°
The First launch bring large fuelled hydrogen Tank into orbit, prototype for Nuclear Ferry tanks.
Second launch to bring America third Space station into orbit.


The USAF chief of staff General Buck Turgidson was furious about this, as the USAF's demands for a polar payload of 40,000 lb were now dashed as the Orbiter would be limited to sending to 28,000 lb to the desired polar orbit.
In response to further pressure from the USAF, NASA offered up the Shuttle cargo version, with the S-IVC replacing the Orbiter,
to bring the needed 43354 lb into a military reconnaissance polar orbit. In the near term the Shuttle Orbiter could lift the existing USAF hardware into space and return it to the Earth.
Additionally, thanks to a proposal by General Aldon, the Shuttle launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base would made compatible for a Saturn Vc offering even more payload for launch into a polar orbit.

And so in Vandenberg AFB began construction of Space Launch Complex 7 for the Space Shuttle, with a total price tag of $2 billion, while the construction of the Shuttle Mobile Launcher Platform began simultaneously at Launch Complex 39

In 1973 construction began on the main test articles for the Booster and Orbiter.
In 1976 the first prototype booster SB-099 "Virgo" and orbiter SO-099 "Pathfinder" were completed, being designed only for use in atmospheric flight tests and static engine tests.
The same year the F-1A engine completed it's qualification procedure for use on the Flyback Booster and Saturn VC
In 1977 the first space-worthy booster, SB-101 "Orion", made its first in-air test flight with jet engines as did the first space-worthy orbiter, the SO-101 "Enterprise".
In 1978 the first powered test-flight of the Boosters "Orion" and “Andromeda" launched S-IVCs with mass simulators and Space Tug prototypes.
Two years behind schedule, the first space launch of Orion and Enterprise were made on the 21st of April 1979,
Eighteen years after Yuri Gagarin made his first space voyage and a little under ten years after the first voyages to the lunar surface.
The first three flights tested the entire system, while the forth flight went to Skylab-5 to test rendezvous and approaching techniques.
On the fifth flight "Enterprise" achieved it's first with an orbiting space station via the docking adapter tucked within it's payload bay.
The mission was aimed to make Skylab-5 habitable and ready to serve as an orbital safe haven in cases emergencies on space station III.
Also recuperation of a Space Tug prototype dock on station two years ago under project DELOS.
The hibernating Skylab-5 was discovered to be in poor condition, but usable for the short time required of an orbital save haven.



Appendix

In total 7 Booster and 5 orbiter were build.
Shuttle Booster were named after star constellation

SB-099 "Virgo" prototype only, used for atmospheric flight test and engineer hardware testing Display at KSC.
SB-101 "Orion"
SB-102 "Andromeda"
SB-103 "Capricorn"
SB-104 "Eagle"
SB-105 "Archer" based on Vandenberg AFB
SB-106 "Aries" based on Vandenberg AFB

Shuttle Orbiter were named after historical ships.
SO-099 "Pathfinder" prototype only, used for atmospheric flight test and engineer hardware testing. Display at KSC.
SO-101 "Enterprise" named after a famous TV-Spaceship, who name after USS Enterprise of 1874
SO-102 "Washington" first US ship to round Cape Horn, first to reach Vancouver and later reach Japan
SO-103 "Endeavour" after James Cook Vessel
SO-104 "Beagle" famous vessel what Charles Darwin used on exploring the World.

If needed the Orbiter landed after launch from KSC (Florida) at Vandenberg AFB (California).
There it would get overhauled and launched into a polar orbit for joint NASA/DoD mission.
After the Mission they would land at KSC or Vandenberg AFB, depending were they are needed for the next mission.

Payloads
For Orbiter version in payload bay of 60 ft by 15 ft ø
54895 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 28°
27999 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 90°
29983 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 55°

For Unmanned cargo version with S-IVC 55 ft by 21.66 ft ø
85000 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 28°
43354 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 90°
46425 pounds into 100 nm orbit at 55°

Russian hardware is robust and little bit heavily-built
it has to Work, not to win a Design contest...

yes it's have to operate outer solar system
in mean time Soviets work on nuclear reactor for space application

nice Illustration about Lunokhod rover used for L3-complex mission


By Nick Stevens


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