The Spanish–American War (1898) in real time

This is a lovely day. The sun is shining brightly and it is hot all day and a good breeze is blowing. All day we all take advantage and wash our clothing. We all are expected to go on outpost again tomorrow with one battery of the First Colorado, the Astor Battery and the Second Battalion of the Nebraska/ Today, the 23rd and 14th Regiments of the Regulars are pitching tents right next to us southward. Snyder who was shot through the breast died today and is laid to rest with the others in the church yard. This evening the natives informed us that we must bury out dead elsewhere. I expect we will have to remove our dead comrades and select and establish a cemetery for our own exclusive use. This has been a nice day all day. [Frank] Christopher, [Frank] Shanaberger and [John] Turley are on the sick list.

I went on outpost duty at 8 a.m., arriving at Pasay Crossroads at 9 am. One man was shot last night. I met a Pennsylvanian man bringing his gun from the trenches. It had been knocked out of his hand and, on examination, I discovered a bullet embedded behind the ramrod, below the stocking swivel. Only two shots at long range were fired during my spell of duty.

The weather has been horrible these past three days. A brisk wind from the southwest is causing an increasingly turbulent sea. Land communications have been particularly difficult. General Greene profusely thanked his troops for this battle (although I personally feel that too much importance is given to it), since it only cost seven lives.

There seems to be in the insurgent camp, sympathy for Spain. Pio del Pilar has volunteered to bring in food stuffs, selling us cows and carabaos. News is received in Manila of the fall of Dagupan into the insurgents’ hands last 30 July. Seven hundred men who had for a long time defended that town surrendered to the enemy with their arms and equipment. Scarcity of supplies in Manila is daily becoming worse. Every day horses are slaughtered and sold at the price of carabao meat.

Bernabé Boza Sánchez, Brigadier General of the Liberation Army, is born



 Bernabé Boza Sánchez, Brigadier General of the Liberation Army, is born

Daris Rondón Laurencio

February 3, 2021

On February 4, 1858, Bernabé Boza Sánchez, Brigadier General of the Liberation Army, was born in Puerto Príncipe, Camagüey province. He was the son of wealthy parents, but with pro-independence ideas.

His childhood

Since he was little he followed his father ideas and for this reason, at the age of ten, when the war for Cuban independence broke out in La Demajagua, on October 10th, 1868; his mother sent him abroad knowing of his rebellious ideas. He joined the War of ’68 at a very young age.

His passion for freedom

He returned to Cuba six years later, in 1874, to join the Mambisas ranks; in February 1878, he rose to the rank of First Sergeant. Years after the end of the war he kept waiting for a new uprising and in 1895 he rose up again with Major General Máximo Gómez Báez, who put him at the head of his escort; becoming a member of his staff.

He excelled in various battles during the War of 95, concluding with the rank of Brigadier General. After the first intervention of the United States on the island, he was mayor in Santa María del Rosario, Havana, to later become part of the House of Representatives after the establishment of the Neocolonial Republic, paying close attention to social works.

He continued his fight for independence and joined the independence fighters against the United States after the second American intervention in 1906.

When the Patriotic Board was formed by Salvador Cisneros Betancourt he joined him, always keeping firm the principles for which he fought from an early age, strongly criticizing annexationist ideas.

Translated by: Aileen Álvarez García

This is another pretty day. We all marched off promptly at 8:00 a.m. up the road towards Manila. We are leaving this road now and take the road for Pasay. This road crosses the Manila road and runs towards the beach. Companies C and H were stationed at the crossroads. I was detailed with two others under Sergeant Hagan to occupy Outpost No. 1 The rest of the regiment was stationed at Pasay right back (behind) of the native’s outpost. At about noon, Company C was ordered on to the firing line. Twelve men under Lieutenant Howard were detailed on outpost about 500 yards ahead of us. Later on, the rest of us were detailed to different places along the line to repair the breastworks. Just as soon as it began to get dark, the enemy and insurgents kept their firing up continuously but all the bullets passed way over our heads showing us that the Spaniards were aiming entirely too high. But, this made it very unpleasant for us, moreso for the outpost who were always in great danger. During all this time the rain just poured down the whole time. Every one of us were drenched to the skin. In the morning we were relieved by the Idaho boys. [Frank] Christopher and [Frank] Shanaberger remain on the sick list.

This morning, the American monitor, Monterey, arrived in Cavite, escorted by a commercial steamer. Crossing the Pacific on this monitor weighing 4,000 tons must have been a remarkable exercise for the sailors. The Yankees’ prowess at sea is sure evidence that they have English blood in their veins.

Now that Camara’s squadron and the Pelayo have retired to Europe, what does Dewey need this monitor for? I am certain that the Monterey will not return to America, proving once again that they do covet this exceptional colony. They have come and intend to remain here. The insurgents are not blind and must have drawn their own conclusions at the sight of the Monterey with its 30cm cannons and the two 22cm guns in their turrets. Not even Spain has ever threatened Manila with cannons of this caliber. The Spaniards have certainly come up against a formidable negotiator. The Monterey, anchored in this bay, is an absolute fortress of steel.

Saturday’s fighting lasted three hours. It was a terrible night. General Greene had pushed the retrenchment forward at Camp Dewey with an impudence which could have cost him dearly if he were confronted with a better armed and more skilled enemy instead of the Spaniards who, with merely 3,000 men, advanced behind the bamboo and mangrove bushes extending along the right-hand side of the enemy lines, taking the Yankees completely by surprise. These Americans do not really understand the tactics of war. Their strength is based on an arrogance which will be their undoing the day that they pit themselves against an organized enemy. A division of Yankees could easily be overthrown by a German brigade.

Germany's Colonial Ambition In the Philippines 1898

October 15, 2012

Following the defeat of the Spanish fleet at the hands of Dewey's American squadron in Manila Bay, Berlin dispatched its "Ostasiatische Kreuzergeschwader" (East Asia Squadron) under the command of Admiral Otto von Diederichs to the Philippines, the instruction: to protect German interests, and if possible, seize a colonial concession in the Philippines.

It took a while before von Diedrichs was able to assemble his fleet, but by mid-June 1898, the German squadron numbering to 5 ships (consisting of SMS Kaiser, SMS Irene, SMS Cormoran, SMS Kaiserin Augusta and SMS Prinzess Wilhelm) was at the entrance of Manila Bay, enough to post a serious challenge against the American fleet. This led Dewey to imposed a naval blockade not only against the Germans but also against the other foreign warships (of Great Britain, France, and Japan) lurking at Manila Bay. But the provoking actions and presence of the German fleet did not end there, the Germans violated Dewey’s blockade of Manila by bringing in a supply of flour to the trapped and beleaguered Spaniards and even treating the sick Spanish residents aboard the German vessels.

The breaking point came when the German gunboat Cormoran refused to acknowledge signals from the Americans to be boarded for inspection. The gunboat had to be stopped by firing a shot across its bow. Von Diederichs then sent an officer to complain about Dewey’s provocative acts. The incident almost got the Americans and Germans to an exchange of fire. Finally, realizing that Spain would not sell the Philippines to her, and with the arrival of the American expeditionary forces, Germany abandoned her colonial ambition in the country. A few weeks later, the Treaty of Paris was signed

This evening and the following electric lighting will be switched off in all the surrounding areas of the town.

I returned to camp from outpost duty at 10 a.m. Captain Richter died of his wounds during the day. We had a checkroll report at 9 p.m.

It was still raining as we arrived in camp at 10:00 a.m. We were all tired and needed rest badly. We didn’t even have sufficient food to satisfy our hunger. Our tents were partly blown down again. We heard a report that the USS Monterey had come in and we are all anxious to march on Manila. In the evening the insurgents marched past our camp about 1,000 men strong. About midnight we hear the cracks of cannon and rifle shot. George Miller, [Frank] Christopher and [Frank] Shanaberger are on the sick list.

It is said that the Monterey has brought formal orders to attack. But perhaps the victor and the vanquished would eventually end the fighting and maybe even settle their problem without combat.

There is threat of a typhoon. The strong winds from the west have worsened the situation at sea. We are forced to close all portsides and doors to keep the water from coming in. The defense mounted by the junk boats at the mouth of the Pasig River has failed. We have been enduring these torrential tropical rains for a month now. The Tagals, however, are indifferent to the weather, and continue surrounding Manila and the countryside. What would the Americans do here without them? Sinking a fleet at anchor is certainly only the first step towards the conquest of a country that is bigger than Hongkong or Ireland.

The shots heard on the evening of August 1 and 2 came from the attacks attempted by General Agustin and his units against the Americans in their trenches. Insignificant losses with no decisive results.

Tonight, a dramatic turn of events. We have learned from the consulate that the governor general of the Philippines, General Agustin, has been removed from office. Nothing could be more ridiculous; for the past four days, he has been working secretly at his desk. But what is more revolting is the example set by Madrid, whose policies are an incredible mixture of stupidity, incoherence, inertia and hysterical indecisions.

General Jaudenes y Jaudenes has been appointed governor, with Francisco Rizzo his deputy. This is nothing compared to General Monet’s appointment as chief of defense after deserting his post and his men, a constant subject of severe criticism. Together with his 2,800 men and General Agustin’s family, he found himself surrounded by insurgents since June. Under the pretext of escorting Mrs. Agustin and her five children across the Tagal lines, General Monet and his aide-de-camp abandoned their men. Some say that the true version of the story is that Monet abandoned his troops because he was aware of the implacable hatred of the Tagals. Of all the Spaniards, he is the most hated by the Tagals, having allegedly exerted heavy-handed authority by putting to death thousands of natives, women and children included, during the last repression of the uprising.

In order to promote more confusion, the same newspapers which carried news items regarding Agustin’s downfall have also reprinted an article published in Spain, dated the 21st of July, in which the new governor sings high praises to “the heroism of the Philippine army, its illustrious chief, and the nation.” The appointment orders dated the 24th were evidently pre-empted by the newspaper article.

All these insincere half-truths disgust us. Have people really reached this level? One could almost say that the empty pride of the vanquished found glory in their defeat. There is nothing else left for this nation but to face death.

All night long, not a single shot was fired, thanks to the storm and the winds which the typhoon is donating to us. At 7:00 this morning, there was an exchange of fire for a half-hour. To everyone’s surprise, the Captain General, D. Basilio Augustin, has been demoted from office. It seems the reason for this government decision was his telegram declaring that, since the squadron commanded by Camara was not coming, he refused all responsibility for whatever would happen regarding the success of the war. The general convened the Board of Authorities and in their presence announced the government order, afterwards handing over the command to the General of the division, D. Fermin Jaudenes. In the latter’s place, General Rizzo was named Segundo Cabo. Letters and newspapers have been spread in which the following are said to he certainly the conditions for peace: (1) Independence of Cuba and (2) Annexation of Puerto Rico and the Marianas Islands. Besides, Spain is ready to sign the peace provided the United States or independent Cuba acknowledge the public debt of the island. This the Yankees refuse to do.

Mass at 6 a.m. Captain Richter was buried with full military honours at 10 a.m., accompanied by a band. There was heavy fire with big guns from 8 to 8.30 p.m. which caused the deaths of two men and the wounding of six others from the 14th US Infantry who were in the trenches. Most of us slept in our clothes expecting to be called out at any moment.

Finally, this farce is reaching its conclusion. I am convinced that up to the last minute, each one will do his utmost to mislead the other. General Merritt and Admiral Dewey have released the United States’ ultimatum for Manila’s surrender. The Spaniards have been given 48 hours to reply.

Admiral Dewey has informed the foreign squadrons of a likely American attack on Manila at the stroke of noon on Tuesday. The captain general’s immediate reply to the possible bombardment on Tuesday if he refused to surrender was that the Spanish flag would not be lowered.

Neither side is willing to compromise. Admiral Dewey pretends that his only option is to attempt a sea operation due to the numerous losses supposedly sustained by the land troops in the course of various attacks launched over the past days. In fact, the Americans have not yet attacked Manila, and during the fighting on July 1 and August 1, losses were few. It is a known fact that even the Spaniards sustained only six wounded in the fight that took place on the 2nd and 4th of August. If the Americans did attempt an intensive land attack, their high-powered weapons would have completely destroyed Manila. The Americans are fully aware of their uncontested strength, and feel no need to attack. On the contrary, they need to capture Manila and take possession of the city before a peace agreement is concluded. Obviously imminent is that Admiral Dewey plans to offer the Philippines as a gift to his country. According to the English, a certain number of civil servants will come after the arrival of the expedition troops, and the United States government will then take over the administration of Manila. It now seems evident that the United States has been considering the annexation of the Philippines since June.

The Americans, on the one hand, know that there is no need to bombard Manila, and the Spaniards, on the other, want to give the impression that they are going to attack. The truth of the matter is that the Americans never had the slightest intention of destroying the city, and the Spaniards did not for a single moment wish to be bombarded.

On August 4, when General Jaudenes announced the length of time he needed to consult his government, the Americans, out of absolute compassion, could not grant his request. And why not? Unless it was for the reason that their main interest was to use a conquered Manila as leverage in their peace treaty.

In short, the Americans were determined to capture Manila before making peace. What could Spain hope for at this point? Hold Manila at all costs for as long as possible? But the Spaniards made so many erroneous moves which, in the end, cost them dearly. In fact, we know today they lost everything in the name of peace.

Same day, Afternoon

Manila and its Surroundings

I shall go on land as soon as possible. The news of the ultimatum which has been spreading for the last three months has no great impact in this country that has been smelling of gunpowder and resounding of gunshots for the past three years. Manila is built almost entirely of wood to make it less vulnerable to earthquakes, but as a consequence, it has had frequent fires caused by constant bombardments. However, the Tagals are not demoralized by this situation.

In the Philippines, I met some Spanish officials who have no illusions. All they demand is the opportunity to fight. As the colonel of the light artillery stated:

–What will they accomplish by bombarding? They will merely kill women and children. These are the sordid details of war, but we are not going to be stopped.

What is the point in all this discussion when they refuse to take up arms? I suppose that the officer wished to explain that the death of civilians would not prevent them from fighting. If such were the case, the Americans would be a long way from Manila.

Some Spanish officers have expressed their disappointment over the way the war is being conducted and the policies of their ministers. They deplore the lack of change and the abuse of civil servants and the court systems. They feel that the only difference is that the newcomers have empty stomachs and are therefore three times more greedy than their predecessors.

“No one has ever wanted to look the situation in the face,” commented someone. “We have always postponed making decisions. We have arrived at the present disastrous situation because there has been no remedy for the ills which we suffer.”

Camara’s recall was the last blow for these courageous people. They realized that the pathetic politicians in Madrid did not suspect how serious the Philippine war was between the Americans and the Spaniards until Dewey’s squadron entered the bay. If cruisers like the Pelayo and the Charles-Quint with their torpedoes were in Manila, they could have put Dewey’s fleet in a precarious situation.

It is becoming increasingly difficult to secure provisions. The troops have no more bread and are living on  biscuits.

The liveliness of the streets has not diminished. Although we Did not know Manila at the prime of its prosperity, we still feel something feverish in the air, with the people no longer interested in their affairs for several weeks now, the rich Chinese leaving, and the Tagals deserting their jobs. Only the coachmen are seen driving their emaciated little horses. Everyone seems to be waiting for some spectacular event to take place. Nothing can be more tiring than waiting, like spectators in a theater, for the sound of gunfire, a calamity, or the murder which would bring down the curtain. The Spaniards have always lived with the vague fear of a massacre. The Americans pretend to share the same apprehension and take advantage of the situation to impose their will on all without any accountability to anyone.

Before retiring on board ship we stopped at the Luneta. There were numerous vehicles on the promenade and the weather was pleasantly cool.

Looking at all these people, we could not believe that in 48 hours, there would be a bombardment. Everyone was strolling quietly and appeared to be enjoying the beautiful day. Admiral Montojo, in the company of one of his daughters, passed by in his vehicle. We noticed that he looked well and had such an untroubled expression that it was hard to believe Admiral Dewey sank his entire fleet three months ago. He gambled and lost and has called it quits. But what about the fatherland?

HONOR/SHAME POSTED ON APRIL 22, 2015

Q: What do honor-shame cultures and wine have in common? A: They both have terroir!



Honor and shame cultures always have a unique flavor depending on the context. For example, East Asians response to shame by withdrawing, whereas Middle Easterners will defend their honor aggressively. The values of honor and shame lead to antithetical responses. Codes of honor and shame vary so widely that some scholars insist on using the plural “honors,” implying there is no singular, universally-shared notion of “honor” or “shame.” Here is how I explain it:



Honor and shame are the foundational values of many cultures, but every culture expresses those values uniquely. Every culture has its own flavor of honor and shame.



Alexis de Tocqueville made a similar observation when visiting America:



What our fathers called the archetype of honor was, in reality, only one of its forms. They gave a generic name to what was only a species. Honor is to be found therefore in democratic centuries as well as in aristocratic times. But it will not be hard to show that in the former it presents a different face. (Democracy in America [1848] 4:152-53)



To illustrate this reality, I broke down the 5 major types of honor/shame: Western, Latin, Islamic, African, and Asian.Global Types of Honor:Shame



Explanation of the 5 Regions of Honor-Shame


--Western shame tends to be more private and personal. It is an internal, psychological emotion often rooted in the fragmentation and alienation of modern life. Shame is not so much community scorn (though social media is bringing this aspect out more and more), but low self-esteem. Read more.

--Latin notions of honor, at least for men, often depend upon being macho. Honor-shame are uniquely linked to race and economic class in South American. Read more. Recall also that the countries of southern Europe are Latin-based, so share some similarities.

--Islamic culture highly esteems the Koran, Mohammed, the ummah, and even the Arabic language, as symbolic representations of honor. Muslims feel personally disrespected if any of these are disgraced. Middle Eastern cultures tend to compete aggressively for honor, so can feel justified using violence to defend their honor (i.e., honor killings, terrorism).

--African cultures give a high value to ancestry and have a strong community orientation. Properly honoring the living dead is a crucial part of African religion/culture.

--In Asian cultures, the notion of “face” is paramount. One can lose, keep, save, and gain “face.” People’s response to shameful situations tends to be more passive, because shaming someone else brings shame upon oneself, hence the extreme politeness.


The above comments are obviously broad generalizations. Such simplifications will make some cringe, and rightfully so. I lived in Central Asia for nine years, where the culture is a unique amalgamation of Islamic, Asian, and Soviet notions of honor-shame. Culture types are far more complex than the above map implies.



The point here is simply this: honor-shame has unique flavors; honor-shame is not monolithic. A more accurate depiction would break out the thousands honor-shame flavors, but that becomes too unwieldy to be practically helpful. How would you explain the terroir of honor-shame in your context?

Admiral Montojo, in the company of one of his daughters, passed by in his vehicle. We noticed that he looked well and had such an untroubled expression that it was hard to believe Admiral Dewey sank his entire fleet three months ago. He gambled and lost and has called it quits. But what about the fatherland?

"I will be forced to sink [the US ships], because even if I have one ship left I will proceed with the bombardment. Spain, the Queen and I prefer honor without ships than ships without honor (España prefiere honra sin barcos a barcos sin honra.)"

Jaudenes could not accept defeat in the hands of the Filipinos. His option was to surrender to the Americans, but pride dictated that it should be done with honor. To save face and to please the Madrid government, through Belgian consul Edouard Andre, he entered into a secret agreement with Admiral Dewey and General Merritt to stage a mock battle before final surrender was to be consummated; so secret that only a few trusted commanders from both sides knew about it.

This morning, a merchant vessel with the English flag seems to have brought to the Yankees official letters from the Washington government. At noon, the English vice-consul and the Belgian consul visited the captain general. They were bringing an official dispatch signed by Dewey and Merritt, whose message was more or less as follows. It is possible within forty-eight hours we would attack the plaza on land and by water. We forewarn Your Excellency that you may have time to evacuate to safety the civilian population. The captain general answered the Yankees knew fully well they could not evacuate the civilians because the insurgents are almost at the very doors of Manila. The Belgian consul who brought in his pocket the peace conditions in case the captain general would want to know them kept quiet on hearing the latter’s answer. News of this next bombardment spread like lightning through the city and all the people prepared for the defense. The military do not stop for one moment bringing in chariots of gunpowder and cannon shot, and other war materiel. It seems Commodore Dewey was surprised at the unexpected destitution of Gen. Augustin who, five times, had refused his attempts for a parley, telling Dewey to do what he intended as he himself knew what to do.

This is a beautiful Sunday morning and not too warm. Companies H, K, D and E are ordered on outpost. We had services at headquarters in the morning and in the afternoon our cooks tried to bake their first biscuits which were as hard as bombshells but mighty nice to eat. We didn’t hear any firing all day. Everything remained quiet. No sick except Sergeant [Samuel] Hagan.