The Great War (1914-1918) in real time

[Day 415 of the Great War, September 15th 1915

Western Front: autumn French offensive, originally scheduled for September 8th, has been postponed to the 25th

- The autumn French offensive, originally scheduled for September 8th, has been postponed to the 25th to allow more time to constitute the new 2nd Army under General Pétain on the Champagne front. Joffre had originally intended for the attack in Artois to be undertaken first, but with the delay, and in accordance with a report by Lieutenant Colonel Maurice Gamelin, head of the Operations Bureau, the French commander-in-chief has decided that the main operation in Champagne and the secondary operation in Artois will be undertaken simultaneously. Joffre also remains confident in the outcome of the offensive, writing to his army-group commanders today: 'The Germans have only a very few reserves behind their thin line of entrenchments. The simultaneity of the attacks, their strength, their width, will prevent the enemy from massing his infantry and artillery reserves on a point as he was able to do north of Arras [in the Spring during the 2nd Battle of Artois].'

Eastern Front: attack of the Russian XXXIX Corps along the Stubiel River on the 13th had been the first phase of Brusilov's offensive

- The attack of the Russian XXXIX Corps along the Stubiel River on the 13th had been the first phase of Brusilov's offensive, and while its advance had been contained it has succeeded in drawing in the reserves of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army. The newly-arrived Russian XXX Corps, meanwhile, has moved north of the Horyn River, and launches the second phase of Brusilov's plan when it descends on the Austro-Hungarian 62nd Division near Derazno this morning. The Russian 80th Division pushes through swamp into the gap between 62nd Division and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Cavalry Division to the north. Despite fierce counterattacks the Russians hold, and by nightfall 62nd Division is forced to fall back to the southwest. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps is ordered to pull back to a new defensive line along the Klewan-Karpilowka road, while the cavalry corps under General Otto Berndt to the north also pulls back to remain in touch. The commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army hopes that X Corps, in its new positions, will be able to hold the army's northern flank and avoid further withdrawals.

Map: The counteroffensive of the Russian 8th Army, Sept. 15th to 18th, 1915



Naval operations: North Sea

Lookouts aboard British submarine HMS E-16 sight smoke in the distance. Approaching, the smoke is seen to be coming from the paraffin engines of a German U-boat. E-16 fires two torpedoes at U-6. According to the German watch officer, Oberleutnant zur See Beyer, he managed to dodge the first torpedo but was unable to escape the second. The five men of the watch crew survived, but the other 24, including her commander, Oberleutnant z.S. Reinhold Lepsius, went down with their ship.

Naval operations: Black Sea

Wilhelm Werner, commanding UB-7, torpedoes SS PATAGONIA, 6,011 tons, travelling in Ballast from Odessa to Nicolaieff. PATAGONIA was a British freighter acting as a Russian naval transport at the time of her loss.

Day 417 of the Great War, September 17th 1915

YouTube (The State Of World War 1 - As Reported by A Newspaper 105 Years Ago)



Eastern Front: General Alexeiev of West Front concludes

- General Alexeiev of West Front concludes today that even with the formation of 2nd Army east of the Sventsiany gap, Vilna can no longer be held in the face of the threat of the German offensive cutting the line of retreat of the city's defenders. Orders are thus issued for 10th Army to withdraw from the city eastwards.

- At dawn elements of the Russian XXXIX Corps, advancing from the confluence of the Putilowka and Stubiel Rivers, crash into the Austro-Hungarian 62nd Division. Already battered after severals days of combat, and with its southern flank uncovered by the retreat of 24th Division, 62nd Division quickly breaks, and its shattered remnants can only retreat westward as fast as possible. Further north, Russian cavalry break through the Austro-Hungarian cavalry corps under General Berndt at Zurawicze and Karpilowka while the Russian IV Cavalry Corps pushes back the Austro-Hungarian 1st Cavalry Division. By late morning the retreat of the Austro-Hungarian cavalry has uncovered the northern flank of 4th Army, and there are no more reserves immediately available to restore the situation. The commander of 4th Army concludes that there is no alternative to a large-scale retreat to put space between his forces and the Russians and give time for his infantry to rest and recover - 4th Army has suffered 50 000 casualties since the beginning of the offensive towards Rovno a month ago. Conrad reluctantly agrees with this assessment, and orders are issued for 4th Army to retreat all the way to the Sytr River, which also compels the northern wing of 1st Army to fall back on the Ikwa River. After dark the exhausted Austro-Hungarian forces disengage from the Russians and begin their retreat, and the retreat begins after dark.

The collapse of 4th Army also compels Conrad to once again ask Falkenhayn for aid. To the north of 4th Army, the German Army of the Bug has continued its successful advance, capturing Pinsk yesterday. Conrad proposes that a significant portion of the Army of the Bug be diverted to the southeast to fall upon the northern flank of the now-advancing Russian 8th Army. Falkenhayn agrees, but insists that the operation be placed under a German commander. In no place to resist the suggestion, Conrad concurs, and General Linsingen, commander of the Army of the Bug, is made head of an army group that is to consist of the German XXIV Reserve Corps and the German 5th Cavalry Division from the Army of the Bug as well as the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army and the two Austro-Hungarian cavalry corps operating between the two armies.

Bulgaria: opposition leaders secure an audience with King Ferdinand

- In Bulgaria opposition leaders secure an audience with King Ferdinand where they demand the recall of the Bulgarian parliament to debate entry into the war and warn the monarch that the Bulgarian people will not tolerate going to war with Russia. Ferdinand, however, is not to be dissuaded from his chosen course of action, and merely promises to relay their concerns to Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov.

Naval operations: Mediterranean Sea, about 20 miles south of Crete

Waldemar Kophamel, commanding U-35, sinks French freighter SS RAVITAILLEUR with his deck gun, then tows the ship's lifeboats to shore. RAVITAILLEUR, 2,815 tons, was bound from Malta to Cyprus with a cargo of coal. Kophamel's score is now 20 ships and 32,226 tons.

Day 419 of the Great War, September 19th 1915

Western Front: General Haig of the British 1st Army issues his final orders to his corps commanders for the forthcoming offensive

General Haig of the British 1st Army issues his final orders to his corps commanders for the forthcoming offensive, scheduled to be undertaken in six days time. The main attack will be undertaken by I Corps (commanded by Lieutenant General Hubert de la Poer Gough) in the north between La Bassée Canal and the Vermelles-Hulluch road and IV Corps (commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Rawlinson) in the south between the Vermelles-Hulloch road and a large slag heap known as the Double Crassier. Their objective is to carry the two German defensive lines and secure crossings of the Haute Deule Canal, between 8000 and 9000 yards from their starting line. To the north, the Indian Corps and the III Corps beyond would undertake diversionary attacks between the La Bassée Canal and Aubers Ridge.

Crucial to the success of the British plan is the use of chlorine gas. By today, 5500 cylinders containing a total of 150 tons of chlorine gas have been installed along the front of 1st Army. It was estimated that German gas masks were ineffective after thirty minutes, and thus the plan was to send the gas over the German lines for forty minutes prior to the infantry attacking immediately thereafter. However, the use of gas is entirely dependent on the weather conditions; without a strong wind in the right direction, the released gas may not pass over the German lines, and indeed might be blown back into the British lines. Thus one of the most important individuals at Haig's headquarters is Captain E. Gold, a meteorologist seconded from the Royal Flying Corps, and whose responsibility is to provide daily weather forecasts to allow Haig to decide whether or not the chlorine gas can be used. If the weather does not cooperate, Haig intends to undertake a scaled-down attack on the 25th, with the main advance occurring on the 26th or 27th, depending on the day the chlorine gas can be used.

Eastern Front: Falkenhayn must find German forces that he can send to the Balkan Front

Given that some of the Austro-Hungarian forces initially assigned to the Serbian offensive must now stay on the Eastern Front in light of the ongoing crisis of the Austro-Hungarian armies there, Falkenhayn must find German forces that he can send to the Balkan Front in their stead. Thus despite the growing signs of a French offensive on the Western Front, III Corps receives orders today to transfer to the Balkans. Falkenhayn is playing a delicate balancing act, attempting to leave the absolute bare minimum of force on the Western Front to allow for the invasion of Serbia to go forward and avoid the collapse of Austro-Hungarian armies in the east.

Naval operations: North Sea, 3 miles southwest of Folkestone

Swedish freighter SS TORD, 1,313 tons, bound from Kudisvall to Le Havre with a load of wood, hits a mine laid by UC-5 under Herbert Pustkuchen. Tord is only damaged, not sunk.

Naval operations: Mediterranean Sea, 55 miles southwest of Carigotto Island (between Greece and Crete)

Waldemar Kophamel, commanding U-35, sinks British freighter SS RAMAZAN, 3,477 tons, carrying military stores, with his deck gun. Kophamel's score is now 21 ships and 35,702 tons.

Day 421 of the Great War, September 21st 1915

Western Front: British artillery begin their preliminary bombardment of the German lines

- At 7am British artillery begin their preliminary bombardment of the German lines that are to be assaulted on the 25th. While heavy guns and howitzers concentrate on shelling fixed defences, lighter field artillery targets German wire. Each battery of field artillery (of four to six guns) is assigned 150 shells per day, and is responsible for cutting 600 yards of German wire. Despite the concentration of field artillery, it is still not enough to guarantee that suitable paths are cut through the wire - belts of wire are from ten yards to twenty yards deep, and some are situated under cover from direct observation, making it impossible to know before the infantry attack whether the wire has been successfully cut. Further, even if all shells hit on target it would not be enough to clear all the wire, as a number of the shells are duds. Finally, the wire belts before the German reserve trench line are beyond the reach of the field artillery, and though howitzers are assigned to the task the dust clouds kicked up by the bombardment make long-range observation of its effectiveness problematic.

- With French artillery continuing to heavily bombard German positions on both sides of Arras, the headquarters of the German 6th Army concludes this morning 'that a major French attempt at a breakthrough seemed to be imminent.'

Meanwhile, Falkenhayn and Wilhelm II depart OHL headquarters at Pless in Silesia for the Western Front, where they will visit the various army headquarters for inspections and assessments of their situation. This visit is not, however, the result of growing signs of a major Entente offensive on the Western Front - indeed, Falkenhayn himself believes that the artillery bombardments are mere demonstrations, designed to draw German forces from the Eastern Front. He has concluded that if the French in particular did not attack over the summer months to aid their Russian ally when the crisis on the Eastern Front was at its greatest, they were unlikely to attack now that operations in the east are winding down.

Greece and Serbia relations

In June 1913 Greece and Serbia had concluded a military convention whereby each would support the other if attacked by a third party, though only if Serbia deployed 150 000 men to Greece's Macedonian frontier, and it was the absence of these forces that provided justification for Greek neutrality in August 1914. As the French government contemplates action in the Balkans to aid their Serbian allies, they hope that Greece may yet be convinced to enter the war on the side of the Entente. However, if Serbia was unable to deploy 150 000 to its border with Greece at the outbreak of war, it can hardly be expected to do so now when it is about to face invasion from the north and east. Today Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos informs the French and British governments that King Constantine has concluded that the Serbs will not fulfill their obligations under the convention, and as a result the Greeks will remain neutral. Venizelos, given his strong pro-Entente sentiments, does not leave matters there, and offers a very tempting alternative - if the French and British provide 150 000 soldiers instead, his government will consider the Serbian requirement completed, and that Greece will thus enter the war on the terms of the convention.

Bulgaria

According to the Bulgarian constitution the approval of parliament was required before war could be declared. However, Prime Minister Radoslavov and King Ferdinand are reluctant to formally recall parliament lest the opposition succeed in defeating a vote for war. Instead, Radoslavov convenes an informal meeting of parliamentary deputies in Sofia today, where he explains that the time is right for Bulgaria to recover the lands lost in 1913, and that this can only be done by allying with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Despite some dissent, the deputies agree with Radoslavov's argument, and the path to war is clear. Afterwards the Bulgarian government announces mobilization, and 800 000 men report for induction into the army.

Day 423 of the Great War, September 23rd 1915

Eastern Front: evacuation of Lutsk

- The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian 24th Division north of Lutsk yesterday evening forces the evacuation of Lutsk itself, which the Russians occupy this morning. The remnants of the Austro-Hungarian XIV Corps pull back from the west bank of the Styr to the line Zaborol-Polonnaja Gorka, which permits the Russians to establish a bridgehead over the river.

The collapse and retreat of XIV Corps threatens the northern flank of the Austro-Hungarian forces to the south holding along the Ikwa River. However, General Linsingen, commanding both the reinforcements moving south from the Army of the Bug as well as the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army itself, believes that the situation can be rescued not by a direct counterattack against the Russians at Lutsk, but rather by having the relief force, centred on the German XXIV Reserve Corps, drive southeast against the northern flank of the advancing Russian 8th Army, and the enemy to retreat to avoid envelopment.

Map: The intervention of German forces under General Linsingen to rescue the faltering Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, Sept. 23rd to 30th, 1915



Balkan campaign: movement in Hungary

- Over the past two weeks German units assigned to the Serbian campaign have been arriving in Hungary; the German 105th Division, for example, completes its transfer to the Balkans today. To preserve secrecy, the seventy trains needed to transport each division have been forbidden from moving south of Budapest in daylight. After arrival near the Serbian frontier, the movement to staging areas is also conducted at night, German soldiers moving through unfamiliar terrain and surrounded by a civilian population that did not speak any German whatsoever if they got lost.

- In Paris the Council of Ministers convenes to debate the deployment of a French expedition to Greece to aid the Serbs, and the broader implications such an operation would have on grand strategy and the overall direction of the war effort. Preserving Serbian independence, it is felt, is essential to the Entente war effort, in order to tie down significant enemy forces in the Balkans and prevent the opening of an overland route for German munitions and supplies to the Ottoman Empire. However, a significant commitment of force to the Balkans potentially implies a lessening of emphasis on the Western Front, problematic due to the ongoing German occupation of French soil and the opposition of Joffre to any diminuation of forces under his command.

- Despite his pro-German sympathies, Greek King Constantine succumbs to his Prime Minister's arguments regarding the provision of 150 000 soldiers by the French and British instead of the Serbs, and agrees to issue a decree for mobilization. Nevertheless, Constantine remains deeply uneasy about the course of events.

Arial operations: French aircraft bomb railways running between Lille, Valenciennes, Douai, and Cambrai

- In Artois French aircraft bomb railways running between Lille, Valenciennes, Douai, and Cambrai in an effort to disrupt the movement of German supplies and reinforcements once the offensive begins in two days' time.

- The aviation subcommittee of the French Chamber of Deputies issues a scathing report condemning the state of French military aviation. Describing the situation as 'grave,' the report highlights what its authors perceive to be the lack of close cooperation between the French army at the government's aviation directorate, and the inability of the latter to coordinate the expansion of the aviation industry and the deployment of labour. Deputy Pierre Etienne Flandin in particular calls for massive production program of bombers and bomber escorts equipped with new, powerful engines to strike German industrial production.

Naval operations: Celtic See

Claus Hansen begins his fourth war patrol in U-41 with the sinking of three British freighters. SS ANGLO-COLOMBIAN , 4,792 tons, carrying horses from Quebec to Avonmouth, is captured and sunk with the deck gun. Next is SS CHANCELLOR, 4,586 tons, bound from Liverpool to New Orleans with a general cargo; and SS HESIONE, 3,363 tons, carrying a general cargo from Clyde and Liverpool to Buenos Aires. Hansen's score is now 29 ships and 50,009 tons.

Naval operations: North Sea

Ralph Wenninger, in UB-17, torpedoes French armed trawler SAINT PIERRE, 303 tons, bringing his score to 6 ships and 465 tons.

British freighter SS GRONINGEN, 988 tons, bound from Harlingen to London with a general cargo, hits a mine laid by UC-6, under Matthias von Schmettow. His score is now 9 ships and 6,811 tons.

Dutch freighter SS EEMDYK, 6,180 tons, sinks after hitting two mines.

Naval operations: Canada

Swedish freighter SS NORBOTTEN, 8,011 tons, sends a message reporting her position as 100 miles west of Cape Race, Newfoundland. The ship and her 42 crew are never heard from again.

Day 425 of the Great War, September 25th 1915

Western Front: Battle of Loos

- At 3am General Haig and his chief of staff meet once more with Captain Gold, and the latter informs the commander of 1st Army that the wind would be most favourable at dawn. Haig then issues orders for the chlorine gas cylinders to be opened right at dawn at 550am, with the infantry assault beginning at 630am.

Map: The divisions of the British I and IV Corps prior to the attack at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915



The first British use of gas, however, is not without difficulties. At 440am, a German shell strikes one of the cylinders in the sector of 3rd London Regiment of the Indian Corps, and some of the infantry are impacted by the gas before enough dirt can be shoveled onto the burst cylinder. Elsewhere shifts in the wind affect the direction of the gas clouds. In some sectors the gas settles into No Man's Land, and in a few places actually blows back on the British infantry; on the northern flank of I Corps, a gas cloud blows back on two platoons and the battalion machine gun section of 1/9th Highlanders of 2nd Division before they had their gas masks in place, and within a minute only sixteen of eighty men remain capable of action. Though two reserve platoons are called up to take their place, given that the Germans opposite are now fully awake the British attack here is abandoned. The employment of gas is of greater help on the front of IV Corps, the southern wing of 1st Army. In some places the gas clouds at least mix with smoke to obscure the advance of British infantry (equipped with effective gas masks) until they are almost on top of the first German trench line. In front of 15th Division (opposite the village of Loos) and 47th Division to the south, the gas works as intended, the clouds slowly rolling over the German trenches, with the attacking infantry following immediately behind.

Photo: British infantry advancing through gas at Loos, 25 September 1915



North of La Bassée Canal, the diversionary attacks of 8th Division at III Corps and the Meerut Division of the Indian Corps capture several stretches of the first German trench line. However, those elements that push forward successfully find themselves under attack on their flanks from those portions of the first German trench lines that remain in enemy hands, and by nightfall the Germans have recaptured their lost positions. British casualties here are heavy - the Meerut Division alone loses four thousand men - but the attacks at least serve to pin the German forces opposite and prevent them from moving south against the main British attack.

South of La Bassée Canal, 2nd Division, attacking over broken terrain of brick heaps and shell craters, gets nowhere while suffering heavy casualties. On its right 9th (Scottish) Division has more success: while its 28th Brigade to the north never reaches the first German trench line, 26th Brigade on the right, covered effectively by smoke and gas, breaks into and clears a German strongpoint known as the Hohenzollern Redoubt, passes through the second trench line, and reaches its objectives for the first day, all in the first hour. 26th Brigade, however, has suffered terrible losses for its success; of eight hundred men who attacked at 630am, only one hundred remain in action an hour later. On 9th (Scottish) Division's right, 7th Division also achieves notable success: by 730am both of its brigades have pushed through both the first and support German trench lines, and by 930 have captured an old chalk mining area known as the Quarries in addition to capturing a German battery of eight artillery guns. As of 11am they have reached the second German line opposite the villages of St. Elie and Hulluch, but as with the Scots to the north, the two attacking brigades of 7th Division have paid a high price to secure their gains.

Most of General Rawlinson's IV Corps also achieves significant gains in the first hours of the offensive. On the corps' northern wing, though 1st Brigade of 1st Division is initially held up at the German wire, 2nd Brigade passes through the German lines and by late morning is also approaching the village of Hulluch. In the corps' centre, 15th (Scottish) Division advances the furthest this morning: by 705am most of the first German line has been captured, and shortly thereafter British infantry pass through the ruined village of Loos itself, where the British artillery has been particularly thorough in wrecking the German communication trenches. By 800am men of 44th Brigade reach Hill 70, the 'tallest' feature on the Loos battlefield and soon sweep over the crest, capturing the partially-completed redoubt the Germans were still in the process of constructing on the summit. On the corps' southern wing, 47th Division pushes forward and has captured all of its objectives for the day by 9am.

Infantry of the British 47th Division advance into the clouds of chlorine gas released just prior to their attack, Sept. 25th, 1915. The
photograph is taken from the forward British trenches looking towards the German lines.

Despite the failure of the use of chlorine gas to have a decisive effect, by late morning the bulk of the British 1st Army has pushed through the first German trench line and has reached the second trench line, in some cases advancing over three thousand yards. On the German side, 117th Division of IV Corps, responsible for the stretch of the front from south of Haines to south of Hill 70, has suffered the worst, with fifteen companies destroyed and twenty-two guns lost. It no longer has the strength to garrison the entire length of the second trench line it has been pushed into, and has lost touch with 7th Division on its southern flank. When reports of the crisis reach the headquarters of the German 6th Army, Rupprecht immediately orders his entire army reserve - 8th Division, 26th Brigade, and three battalions drawn from II Bavarian Corps - to reinforce the battered IV Corps. It will be late afternoon at the earliest before these forces can reach the battlefield, however; further British attacks in the hours ahead will have to be held by the battered remnants of 117th Division.

On either side of Arras, the assault infantry of the French 10th Army are in their forward trenches by 430am, and the artillery bombardment reaches its crescendo at 9am. However, Foch's plan does not have them attack until 1225pm, the delay hopefully giving time for the British attack to the north to draw German attention and reserves. Shortly before noon, however, rain begins to fall, and the resulting mud makes movement difficult. It is too late to abandon the attack, however, given that the coordination of the overall Entente offensive depends on each main assault occurring on schedule. Thus the French infantry go over the top at the scheduled hour. Unlike the British, the French do not mass-release chlorine gas; instead, French artillery fires gas and smoke shells on rear areas and specified targets.

Overall, the assault of the French 10th Army has mixed results. The attack of the French 43rd Division, located on the northern wing of 10th Army adjacent to the British, is repulsed by the German 7th Division opposite. To the south, however, the weather works to the advantage of the French 13th and 70th Divisions northwest of Souchez - the trenches of the German 123rd Saxon Division of VI Corps have become waterlogged, and when the French infantry emerge from the smoke they overrun the German defenders and are able to push forward two kilometres to the base of Giesler Hill. Further south, at Neuville St. Vaast, French infantry push through the German lines at several points, with some reaching the forward slope of Vimy Ridge itself. On the other hand, the southern wing of 10th Army is unable to make any progress opposite and south of Arras against the German 1st Bavarian Corps.

For the Germans opposite the French 10th Army, the multiple enemy advances between Souchez and Neuville St. Vaast pose the greatest danger, where VI Corps struggles to hold the line. However, the ability of either General Kurt von Pritzelwitz of VI Corps or Crown Prince Rupprecht of 6th Army to direct the defence of the threatened sectors has been impaired by the destruction of telephone lines by artillery fire and aerial bombardment, leaving the German commanders in the dark about the specific circumstances at the front. Moreover, Rupprecht has already had to dispatch all of his army's reserves to contain the British assault at Loos, and thus has nothing left to send VI Corps; the forces already in the line will have to fight and contain the French on their own.

Map: The ground seized by the French 10th Army north of Arras, Sept. 25th, 1915



In the Champagne, at 9am the French artillery shift their fire to concentrate on the first German trench line, and add gas and smoke shells into the mix to reduce the visibility of the enemy defenders. Fifteen minutes later, infantry from eighteen divisions go over the top, and the heaviest attack is undertaken on the inner wings of the French 4th and 2nd Armies, with II Colonial Corps of the former on the left and XIV Corps of the latter on the right. Here the French artillery bombardment has been particularly effective - many of the German defensive positions have been completely destroyed, while many of the German survivors are too stunned to offer serious resistance. So thick is the smoke and gas clouds laid down by the artillery that in some cases the French infantry reach the German trenches before the German soldiers can even emerge from their dugouts, and the latter are captured or killed before they are ready to even fight back. The French bombardment has also cut most of the German telephone lines, cutting off communications and preventing frontline commanders from calling for reserves or counterartillery fire. The result is that XIV and II Colonial Corps simply roll over the first trench line of the German VIII Reserve Corps. By noon, both French corps have advanced three to four kilometres and are assaulting the final German reserve line just south of Somme Py. The advancing French also turn east and west, and begin to roll up the flanks of the German forces on either side of the breakthrough. In response, the German divisions on either side of VIII Reserve Corps, though more successful in repelling the French attacks, have to pull back several kilometres to avoid having their inner flanks turned. Several German artillery batteries are overrun and captured by the French, and each of VIII Reserve Corps' three divisions suffer five thousand casualties.

Map: The gains of the French offensive in Champagne, Sept. 1915



One of the defining characteristics of the Western Front in the First World War is the length of time it takes information and orders to pass up and down the chain of command. In an era before portable wireless radio, reports are either relayed by telephone or send by messenger; the former are extremely vulnerable to artillery fire, while the latter, making their way from newly-won or heavily attacked positions, must navigate both enemy fire and the broken terrain of the battlefield. Delays in communication will be central to the outcome of the fall offensive of the Entente, but one of its first manifestations is seen on the German side. Continuing his inspection tour of the army headquarters on the Western Front, this morning Falkenhayn arrives at Montmédy, and even though British and French forces have been attacking (and advancing) for several hours, now significantly out-of-date reports from 3rd and 6th Army headquarters are sanguine, indicating nothing more than the continuation of artillery bombardments that have been ongoing now for several days. Believing that nothing in particular is amiss, Falkenhayn issues no new instructions and departs shortly thereafter for Stenay, headquarters of 5th Army. While enroute, 3rd Army headquarters finally learns of the plight of VIII Corps, and sends an urgent plea for reinforcements to its neighbour 5th Army, saying that the 'enemy has broken through in the area of Souain-Somme Py. Having also been attacked this morning, 5th Army is in no position to send aid, and its commander, Crown Prince Wilhelm, refuses. With Falkenhayn having recently arrived at 5th Army headquarters, the request by 3rd Army is submitted directly to the German chief of staff. Almost simultaneously, at 1230pm 6th Army headquarters in Artois sends an equally urgent message to Falkenhayn: 'Aided by gas the enemy has broken into the positions of IV Corps at Haisnes and Loos . . . The entire Army Reserve and the 8th Division had to be put at the disposal of IV Corps. Further reinforcements for the army are urgently required.' A telephone conversation with 3rd Army commander General Einem and his chief of staff, Lieutenant-General Ritter von Höhn, further brings home to Falkenhayn the perilous state of affairs, and the German chief of staff feels compelled to remind the badly-shaken Einem and Höhn that the Kaiser expects 'every man to do his duty.'

In an instant, Falkenhayn's understanding of the situation was transformed. Not only were the British and French undertaking significant operations, but they appeared to be on the verge of achieving breakthroughs in both Artois and Champagne - Falkenhayn's strategy of standing on the defensive in the west to permit offensives in the east and the Balkans now appears to hover on the brink of disaster. It was essential now to rapidly move all available reserves to 3rd and 6th Armies to allow them to hold their present lines. Falkenhayn immediately orders 192nd Brigade transferred from 7th Army's reserve to 6th Army and 56th Division from Lorraine to 3rd Army. Shortly after 1pm he departs Stenay for Mézières, OHL's headquarters on the Western Front, to better coordinate the response to the Entente offensive. Here he instructs the Guard and X Corps, currently in Belgium resting and recovering after lengthy service on the Eastern Front, to move to reinforce 6th Army and 3rd Army respectively. It would take hours for these reinforcements to arrive, however, and in the meantime 6th and 3rd Armies will have to hang on with what they have in hand. Falkenhayn's entire strategy for 1915 hangs in the balance.

Meanwhile in Flanders the focus of British commanders this afternoon is pushing up reinforcements to continue the advance. In each division, two brigades had led the attack this morning, while the third brigade was held in reserve, and the struggle now is to get these brigades forward to exploit the gains already won. Now the British experience the difficulties in communicating on the modern battlefield. At 910am, the commander of 1st Division, whose 1st Brigade has advanced almost to the village of Hulluch, issues orders for a two-battalion detachment under Lieutenant-Colonel E. W. B. Green (imaginatively named Green Force). Several messengers are dispatched from 1st Division headquarters with the instructions, but several are struck by German artillery fire or get lost in a landscape where almost every identifying feature has literally been blown away. As a result, the order to advance does not reach Lt-Col Green until 1055am, even though the latter's headquarters was only 2500 yards from the former. It then takes another hour for the order to pass down through battalion and company commanders, so it is not until after midday that Green Force actually begins to move forward. Similarly, to the north 27th Brigade, the reserve of 9th Division, is ordered forward towards Haisnes. Prior to the battle, two communication trenches had been assigned to 27th Brigade to facilitate their movement to the front, but as the infantry attempt to pass through them they find the trenches blocked with wounded coming back to medical stations. When they attempt to move around the blockages they find themselves under German artillery fire, so the brigade has suffered significant casualties before even reaching the front. By the time they approach Haisnes, the German line has been reinforced, and the exhausted infantry instead concentrate on improving the defences of the ground seized. The experience of 21st Brigade, the reserve of 7th Division, is similar - ordered forward to push through the German line north of Hulluch, as they approach the front line just west of St Elie German shrapnel shells cut great swathes through their ranks, and to the survivors who reach the front line it is clear no further advance is possible without more extensive artillery support.

With the delays and difficulties encountered by the divisional reserves, it will take the commitment of further reserve forces to maintain the momentum of the British attack. However, neither I or IV Corps has any reserve, nor does 1st Army. Instead, XI Corps, consisting of 21st and 24th Divisions, the Guards Division, and the Cavalry Corps were under the direct command of Field Marshal French. The commander of the British Expeditionary Force has never been enthusiastic about the offensive at Loos, and it is possible that he retained direct control over these forces to prevent their commitment to a losing cause - the BEF still numbers only thirty-seven divisions, six of which are Territorial divisions with little experience and six of which are 'New Army' divisions with none at all, and given that Britain does not yet have conscription, the destruction of the six divisions of the BEF reserve would have been a serious setback. The practical implication, however, is that after the success of the morning attack, another layer of command is added to the communication delays intrinsic to the First World War battlefield, and will become a major point of contention among the senior leadership of the BEF after the battle.

When the infantry attacked at dawn this morning, the lead columns of 21st and 24th Divisions were about four and a half miles behind the British front line, but the infantry are exhausted after marching all night from their prior concentration areas to the west. At 7am, Haig sends a staff officer by car to French's headquarters, informing the latter that the attack is progressing satisfactorily and requesting the release of XI Corps. Though it ought to have taken only forty-five minutes to cover the ground between the two locations by car, at 845am no response has been received and Haig dispatches another officer. This message reaches French, who in turn at 930am orders the commander of XI Corps to begin moving his two divisions to the front. It is another hour before the order reaches the divisional headquarters, and another forty-five minutes before the lead elements actually begin to move - by this time, the British advance means that they are now seven miles behind the current front line. The exhausted infantry do their best to push forward, but the few roads are already clogged with military traffic and their progress is painstakingly slow. Impatient, at 235pm Haig orders the commander of XI Corps to detach one brigade from each division and prioritize getting those forces to the front as quickly as possible, hoping they can launch an attack today towards the Haute Deule Canal, several kilometres past Hulluch. It is not until 6pm that the first infantry of 62nd Brigade of 21st Division actually arrive at the front, and Haig realizes that it will be impossible to to attack this evening. Instead, just after 8pm he orders XI Corps to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70, in anticipation of an advance by the full corps early tomorrow morning.

On the German side, the hours of the afternoon pass without the expected resumption of the British advance. Though fierce fighting continues, there is no concerted push against the reserve German trenches. As the first reinforcements arrive later in the day, IV Corps uses them to reestablish a continuous front. To the north, elements of 2nd Guard Division, transferred from VII Corps, reestablish contact with the northern flank of 117th Division between Auchy and Haisnes, while to the south, elements of 7th and 123rd Saxon Divisions, sent from VI Corps, advance to Hill 70 and make contact with the southern wing of 117th Division. Though the Germans have suffered heavily, by evening they have recreated a cohesive front line, without gaps that could be exploited by the British. Limited counterattacks have also been undertaken, and though little ground is retaken they have the virtue of at least keeping the British forces off guard, and help convince the lead British brigades that, after the morning battles, they need to wait for reserves before the advance can be resumed. On the southern wing of the British gains, however, the infantry of 44th Brigade that captured the summit of Hill 70 and pushed down the eastern slope come under increasingly heavy German fire from the ruins of workers' cottages to the east. Moreover, their very success means they are now confronted with German defenses that had not been given the same attention from British artillery as the first German trench line. Taking losses, the men of 44th Brigade pull back from the eastern slope of Hill 70, and, given that the summit is now being swept by enemy machine gun fire, they retreat to the western slope and entrench.

As the situation stabilizes through the afternoon, the commander of the German IV Corps decides that the primary reserves dispatched from 6th Army headquarters - 8th Division and 26th Brigade - should be used to counterattack the salient around Loos carved out by the British. Initially hoping to attack this evening, delays are experienced in getting the reserves to the front: 26th Brigade is attempting to deploy into trenches still contested by British infantry, while the soldiers of 8th Division have to move through the maze of ruined houses in the town of Lens. Postponed several times, the counterattack is finally scheduled to go in at midnight.

The first day of the Battle of Loos has seen several British divisions advance several thousand yards, sweeping over the first German trench positions, seizing the village of Loos itself, and pushing up to the German reserve lines. Having achieved this notable success, the pace of the advance faltered, as the forces of the initial attack have suffered losses and reserves have been delayed in getting to the front. Nevertheless, Haig believes that the planned attack of 21st and 24th Divisions at dawn tomorrow will complete the breaking of the German lines.

Map: The gains of the British 1st Army at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915



After its progress in the morning, the situation of the French 10th Army deteriorates in the afternoon. Three regiments of the German 123rd Division, supported by the southern flank of the German 7th Division, attack after dark the French infantry that had pushed to Giesler Hill, and the exhausted French yield some of the ground won earlier today. Opposite Neuville St. Vaast, further French assaults are unable to break through the reserve German trench lines, and though the Germans are unable to recover the forward trench lost this morning, they are able to reestablish a solid defensive line.

In Champagne, the German VIII Reserve Corps fights desperately throughout the afternoon to hold on to its reserve trench line. To stem the French tide, the corps commander orders his recruiting depot (consisting of new recruits from the home front and returning wounded veterans) into the line at Somme Py. In addition, most of 5th Division, located in 3rd Army's rear area and whose orders to transfer to the Balkans had been cancelled just yesterday, is fed into the battle over the afternoon and evening. On the French side, the experience in the aftermath of initial success is similar to that of the British in Flanders: the lead infantry are exhausted and have taken significant losses. Further, in the chaos of battle battalions have been hopelessly mixed up and lines of command confused, while the very extent of the French advance has caused its own problems, as isolated groups of German infantry, bypassed by the initial attack, now emerge to fight in ground the French believe they have already captured. The result is that bitter fighting through the afternoon is not nearly as successful at that of the morning, and the Germans are just barely able to hang on. Nevertheless, General Friedrich Fleck, commanding VIII Reserve Corps, and General Einem of 3rd Army believe the crisis is far from having past, and as the breakdown of communications prevents accurate news from reaching headquartesr to the rear, in the vacuum of news pessimism reigns. Indeed Fleck, believing his command is on the verge of disintegration, requests permission this evening to withdraw from the reserve defensive position northwards past Somme Py and out of the trenches. This retreat, if implemented, would give the French precisely the breakthrough in Champagne they are so desperate to achieve.

On the French side, as reports filter back to the headquarters of the French 2nd and 4th Armies of the successful advance of II Colonial and XIV Corps, General Castlenau of the Army Group of the Centre at 415pm orders the two divisions of VI Corps to enter the line and follow up the attack of and expand the ground seized by II Colonial Corps. Again, however, it takes time for orders to make their way down the chain of command, and for the infantry to make their way across the shattered landscape, and it is midnight before VI Corps is in the front line. Optimism remains high, however, that further attacks tomorrow will shatter the weakened Germans and push on to the north.

Eastern Front: German 12th Army reach the Berezina River east of Lida

- South of Vilna, the withdrawal of Russian forces to counter the German offensive at and north of the city has allowed the German 12th Army to reach the Berezina River east of Lida while the army group under Prince Leopold has arrived at the Szczara River. To the east of Vilna itself, the German 10th Army has ground its way towards Smorgon, but against increasing resistance has been unable to advance further.

To Falkenhayn, Ludendorff's September offensive at Vilna and Sventsiany has achieved exactly what the German chief of staff expected - namely, a minor advance of no great strategic consequence. Considering both the impending invasion of Serbia and the Entente offensive on the Western Front, Falkenhayn believes it is both necessary and desirable to end operations on the Eastern Front. Though the great German victories achieved since the attack at Gorlice-Tarnow in May have not convinced the Tsar to agree to a negotiated peace, they have sharply reduced the strength of the Russian army and it will likely be many months until the Russians are again capable of major offensive actions. As such, Falkenhayn today issues orders for German forces on the Eastern Front to hold their present positions and construct a strong defensive line that can be held with a reduced commitment of forces. At the northern end of the line, the armies under OberOst are to entrench on a line running from west of Riga through Mitau and west of Dvinsk to Lake Narotch and the mouth of the Bierieza River. From here, the army group under Prince Leopold and the Army of the Bug will hold on a line running from the Bierieza River through Baranowicze to Pinsk.

- Russian cavalry and aircraft have reported the movement of the German XXIV Reserve Corps and other formations southeastward toward the northern flank of the Russian 8th Army. Though General Brusilov wishes to stand on the Styr while redeploying the Russian XXX Corps towards Kolki to block the German advance. His superior, the more cautious General Ivanov, disagrees and, seeking to avoid a potential envelopment, orders Brusilov's 8th Army to retreat eastward towards the Putilowka and Kormin Rivers.

Serbian campaign: plans are finalized for the Serbian campaign

- As plans are finalized for the Serbian campaign, preliminary operations are deemed necessary to seize several large islands in the Danube River east of Belgrade - in German or Austro-Hungarian hands, the islands shorten the distance needed by the main crossings, and can serve as platforms to position light artillery closer to the front. The most substantial island is Temesziget, over twelve miles long and up to three miles wide, and its capture has been assigned to 11th Bavarian Division of IV Reserve Corps. Overnight elements of the division crossed to the north shore of the island, and the small Serbian detachments are quickly overwhelmed.

- After several days of debate, the French Council of Ministers decides to go to the aid of the Serbs, and authorizes the dispatch of an expedition to the Balkans. A telegraph is sent to the Greek government informing it that the Entente will provide the 150 000 troops required by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos to activate the convention with Serbia and bring Greece into the war. The British government also agrees to commit forces to the Balkans, though with considerably more disagreement: while David Lloyd George is in favour of contributing to the expedition, Lord Kitchener argues that redeploying forces from Gallipoli to the Balkans is 'jumping out of the frying pan into the fire.' In order to maintain the aura of neutrality, Prime Minister Venizelos requests twenty-four hours notice of the landing of the first Entente forces in Greece, so his government can lodge a diplomatic (though meaningless) protest. The Entente plan is to land at the port city of Salonika in northern Greece, using it as a base of operations for forces moving north to Serbia's aid.

Day 427 of the Great War, September 27th 1915

Western Front: Second Battle of Loos

- Despite the failure of 21st and 24th Divisions yesterday, Haig has decided to continue the offensive and a further attack today is to be undertaken by the Guards Division, which relieved the former two overnight east of Loos. At 150pm orders go out to the three brigades of the Guards Division, which are to attack the German line from the Chalk Pits and Puit 14 (a factory building) in the north to Hill 70 in the south, with the attack on the former two going first to prevent the German defenders there firing into the flank of 3rd Guards Brigade as it advances up Hill 70. The Guards Division is almost a complete opposite to the 'New Army' divisions who they have replaced and who were decimated yesterday - the Guards are the elite of the British army, with the highest standards of professionalism and training. Weighing against them, however, is a wholly inadequate artillery bombardment of the German line beforehand, the result of a lack of ammunition at the front. Moreover, to the north of the Guards elements of the German 14th Division launch a counterattack which seizes Fosse 8 southwest of Haisnes from the British 9th Division in an action in which the latter's commanding officer is killed. Given the setback, Haig cancels the Guards' attack, but the usual communication delays prevent the orders from reaching the brigades by 345pm, when the infantry move forward.

In the first phase of the advance, undertaken by 2nd Guards Brigade, 2/Irish Guards successfully captures the Chalk Pit, but much heavier resistance is encountered at Puit 14. In desperate fighting over open ground swept by machine-gun fire, only a small detachment of 1/Scots Guards and a platoon of 3/Grenadiers are able to reach the factory building, which they find provides insufficient cover. It soon becomes clear that Puit 14 cannot be held, and the survivors pull back. As a result, when 3rd Brigade attacks Hill 70 at 530pm, they take murderous fire from the direction of Puit 14 on their northern flank, and are unable to seize the German defences on the crest. After several hours of fighting 2/Scot Guards and the Welsh Guards entrench about a hundred yards down the western slope of Hill 70. Though the attack of the Guards has largely failed to achieve its objectives, the presence of the veteran soldiers at the front has at least solidified the British gains around the village of Loos.

Among the British casualties today is Lieutenant John Kipling, only son of the famed British poet Rudyard Kipling. The younger Kipling had attempted to enlist as a reserve officer in the 'New Armies' in August 1914, but had been rejected due to poor eyesight. However, the older Kipling, one of the leading imperialists of pre-war Britain, called in a favour from Lord Roberts, one of the foremost Victorian military heroes, who was also Colonel of the Irish Guards. Though largely a ceremonial role without combat responsibilities, the post does allow its holder the right to intervene on personnel decisions, and through Roberts' intervention John Kipling is gazetted as an ensign (later promoted to Lieutenant) in the Irish Guards. By September 1915, though just a month past his 18th birthday, Lieutenant Kipling commands 5 Platoon of 2/Irish Guards in its attack on the Chalk Pit and Puit 14, and in the course of the fighting reaches the far side of the ruined factory building. He is seen to fall wounded, and when the British survivors pull back from Puit 14, Kipling is not amongst them. He is reported as Missing in Action, and within a month it becomes clear that he was not taken prisoner by the Germans today. The death of his only son hits Rudyard Kipling hard, given his personal responsibility for John's acceptance into the army - his perspective on the First World War will never be the same.

To the south of the British at Loos, the southern corps of the French 10th Army reorganize to release forces to move northwards, while the northernmost launch attacks at Angres, Giesler Hill, and Neuville-St. Vaast, largely to show the British that they are not attacking alone. The French attacks, however, get nowhere.

In Champagne, General Castlenau believes that the German defenders have been 'severely shaken' by the prior two days of fighting, and believes another attack will push through the enemy reserve line. To support the advance, the French have moved forward some of their heavy artillery batteries, and Joffre has placed three reserve divisions at Castlenau's disposal. The Germans, however, have recovered from their shock on the 25th, and the reinforcements sent forward by Falkenhayn have now reinforced the front. As a result, when the main French attack goes in at 400pm after an all-day artillery bombardment, the French are only able to secure a few hundred yards of ground south of Ste. Marie à Py, which does not break the stalemate that has reasserted itself on the battlefield. Afterwards, Pétain reports to Castlenau that the reserve German line is sufficiently strong that it can only be penetrated in strength 'only by a meticulously detailed preparation like that executed on the first [German] position.' Moreover, the divisions that have been involved in the first three days of the offensive will need to be replaced by fresh forces, as 'their losses have been considerable, their leaders have for the most part disappeared, and their offensive value is greatly reduced.'

Eastern Front: General Linsingen realizes that the speed of the Russian withdrawal will prevent his forces coming southeast from the Army of the Bug from enveloping the northern flank of 8th Army

- As the pursuit of the Russian 8th Army continues, General Linsingen realizes today that the speed of the Russian withdrawal, coupled with the inability of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army to fix the Russians in place, will prevent his forces coming southeast from the Army of the Bug from enveloping the northern flank of 8th Army. Instead, he issues orders for the German XXIV Corps to adjust the line of its advance to the east and northeast, to prevent Russian cavalry from getting around their northern flank.

Mesopotamian campaign: Tigris River west of Kut-al-Amara

On the Tigris River west of Kut-al-Amara, 16th and 17th Indian Brigades demonstrate against the Ottoman positions opposite for the second day, attempting to convince the enemy that the main British assault will fall here. After nightfall, however, the two brigades prepare to cross to the north bank of the Tigris and execute General Townshend's planned envelopment of the Ottoman line from the north.

Naval operations: Brindisi harbour

This morning the old Italian pre-dreadnought BENENDETTO BRIN explodes and sinks while at anchor in Brindisi harbour, killing most of its crew, including Rear-Admiral Rubin de Cervin. To prevent harming public morale news of the warship's destruction is kept from the Italian public while the explosion is ascribed to unstable ammunition.

Photo: The Italian pre-dreadnought BENENDETTO BRIN



Naval operations: Atlantic Ocean

British liner SS CARIBBEAN, 5,800 tons, in use as a troop ship, founders in a storm off Cape Wrath, Scotland. Taken in tow by cruiser HMS BIRKENHEAD, the liner finally sinks with the loss of 23 lives.

Norwegian sailing ship SV FORTH, 1,813 tons, heading in ballast from Birkenhead to Port Arthur, Texas, develops a serious leak and is abandoned by her crew.

Nowegian barque SV QUEEN, 847 tons, sailing from Gartson to Halifax with a load of salt, founders and is abandoned.

Naval operations: North Sea

British freighter SS NIGRETIA, 3,187 tons, bound from Hull to Rouen with a load of coal, hits a mine laid by UC-6 under Matthias von Schmettow. The ship settles in shallow water, and is later refloated.

Naval operations: White Sea

British schooner SV VINCENT, 1,904 tons, hits a mine off Cape Orloff, Russia. Four wounded, all hands survived.